Exam 2
Chapter 9 - Group Dynamics
Defining and Classifying Groups
Group: Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come together to achieve particular objectives.
Formal Groups: Defined by the organization’s structure.
Informal Groups: Neither formally structured nor organizationally determined.
Group Behaviors to Monitor
Task: Behaviors relevant to the group’s mission, goal, or objective.
Maintenance: Behaviors related to group harmony, climate, and relationships.
Self-Oriented Behaviors: Behaviors that hinder effectiveness (self-interest over group interest).
The Punctuated Equilibrium Model (Exhibit 9-1)
Groups experience periods of inertia and bursts of change.
Group Property 1: Roles
Role: Expected behavior patterns attributed to a given position.
Role Perception: How we think we should act.
Role Expectations: How others think we should act.
Role Conflict: When multiple roles clash.
Group Property 2: Norms
Norms: Acceptable standards of behavior.
Norms and Emotions: Influence group behavior.
Norms and Conformity: Pressure to fit in.
Deviant Workplace Behavior: Violates norms, harming the organization.
Typology of Deviant Workplace Behavior
Production: Leaving early, working slowly, wasting resources.
Property: Sabotage, lying about hours, theft.
Political: Favoritism, gossip, blaming coworkers.
Personal Aggression: Harassment, verbal abuse, coworker theft.
Group Property 3: Status
Status: A socially defined position/rank in a group.
Determined By: Power, contribution, personal characteristics.
Status and Norms: Higher-status members can deviate more.
Status and Group Interaction: Higher-status members are more assertive.
Status Inequity: Creates tension.
Stigma by Association: Status of one can affect others.
Group Property 4: Size and Dynamics
Small Groups: Faster task completion.
Large Groups: Better idea generation.
Social Loafing: Individuals exert less effort in groups.
Preventing Social Loafing:
Set group goals.
Increase intergroup competition.
Engage in peer evaluation.
Select motivated individuals.
Reward based on contribution.
Group Property 5: Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness: Group members’ attraction and commitment to each other.
High cohesiveness + High performance norms = High productivity.
Encouraging Cohesiveness:
Reduce group size.
Increase agreement with goals.
Increase time together.
Increase status of group membership.
Stimulate competition.
Give group rewards.
Physically isolate the group.
Group Property 6: Diversity
Diversity: Differences in group members.
Types: Surface-level, deep-level, functional.
Faultlines: Subgroup divisions, often detrimental.
Group Decision Making
Effectiveness:
Accuracy: Groups better than individuals but not as good as the best member.
Speed: Individuals are faster.
Creativity: Groups are better.
Acceptance: Groups are better.
Efficiency: Groups are less efficient.
Groupthink and Groupshift
Groupthink: Pressure for conformity reduces critical evaluation.
Groupshift: Discussions lead to extreme positions.
Minimizing Groupthink:
Limit group size.
Leaders should encourage input and avoid biasing discussion.
Assign a devil’s advocate.
Use active discussion techniques.
Group Decision-Making Techniques
Interacting Groups: Rely on face-to-face discussion.
Brainstorming: Encourages creativity but has production blocking.
Nominal Group Technique (NGT): Restricts discussion to encourage independent thinking.
Chapter 7 - Motivation Concepts
Motivation
Motivation: Effort toward attaining a goal.
Key Elements:
Intensity: How hard a person tries.
Direction: Where effort is channeled.
Persistence: How long effort is maintained.
Behavior Formula:
Behavior = Needs × Probability of Success × Incentive × Fairness
(If any factor is zero, behavior does not occur.)
Early Theories
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Contemporary Theories
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
Goal-Setting Theory:
Goals should be specific, difficult, and accompanied by feedback.
Management by Objectives (MBO): Goals set at all levels.
Self-Determination Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)
Self-Concordance: Alignment of goals with values.
Basic Psychological Needs: Autonomy, competence, relatedness.
Self-Efficacy Theory
Increased by:
Experience (Enactive Mastery)
Vicarious Modeling (observing others)
Verbal Persuasion (encouragement)
Arousal (energy boost)
Reinforcement Theory
Behavior = Function of Consequences
Operant Conditioning: Reward/punish behavior.
Expectancy Theory
Effort → Performance → Reward → Personal Goals
Organizational Justice
Distributive Justice: Fairness of outcomes.
Procedural Justice: Fairness of processes.
Interactional Justice: Treatment fairness.
Job Engagement
Job Engagement: Investing physical, cognitive, and emotional energy into work.
Chapter 5 - Personality and Values
Person-Organization Fit
More important than person-job fit.
Determines job satisfaction, commitment, and turnover.
Person-Job Fit
Match between a person’s personality & values and the job role.
Holland’s Person-Job Fit Theory:
Vocational Preference Inventory identifies 6 personality types.
Better fit → Higher satisfaction → Lower turnover.
Holland’s Typology of Personality and Congruent Occupations (Exhibit 5-1)
Realistic: Physical, hands-on jobs.
Investigative: Analytical, problem-solving roles.
Artistic: Creative fields.
Social: Helping professions.
Enterprising: Leadership & sales roles.
Conventional: Organized, detail-focused jobs.
Personality
Personality: The sum of an individual’s reactions and interactions with their environment.
Personality Traits: Enduring characteristics that define behavior.
Measuring Personality
Self-Report Surveys (Most common but prone to error).
Observer-Ratings Surveys (More accurate).
Useful in hiring decisions.
Personality Frameworks
1. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Most widely used personality test.
Classifies individuals into 16 personality types based on:
Extroverted (E) vs. Introverted (I)
Sensing (S) vs. Intuitive (N)
Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F)
Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P)
Criticism: Lacks strong scientific support.
2. The Big Five Model
Most supported framework in research.
Five major personality traits:
Extraversion – Sociable, outgoing.
Agreeableness – Cooperative, kind.
Conscientiousness – Responsible, organized (Best predictor of job performance).
Emotional Stability – Resilience, calmness.
Openness to Experience – Creativity, adaptability.
Big Five & Job Performance (Exhibit 5-2)
Conscientiousness → Strongest link to job success.
3. The Dark Triad
Negative personality traits that affect workplace behavior.
Machiavellianism – Manipulative, ends justify means.
Narcissism – Arrogance, need for admiration.
Psychopathy – Lack of empathy, remorse.
Other Personality Frameworks
The HEXACO Model:
Adds Honesty-Humility to the Big Five.
High Honesty-Humility = Fair, modest, unselfish.
Other Personality Traits in OB
Core Self-Evaluation (CSE)
Positive CSE → Higher job satisfaction and performance.
Self-Monitoring
High self-monitors adjust their behavior based on social cues.
Proactive Personality
Proactive individuals take initiative, persist, and drive change.
Personality and Situations
Does personality always predict behavior?
It depends on the situation.
1. Situation Strength Theory
Stronger situations = Less impact of personality.
Components:
Clarity: Clear expectations.
Consistency: Aligned cues.
Constraints: Limitations on choices.
Consequences: Importance of outcomes.
2. Trait Activation Theory
Certain situations activate specific personality traits.
Example: Sales jobs activate Extraversion.
Trait Activation in Jobs (Exhibit 5-3)
Different traits matter in different work environments.
Values
Values: Basic, enduring beliefs about what is desirable.
Value System: Prioritization of values by content & intensity.
Types of Values
Terminal Values: Life-long goals (e.g., freedom, prosperity).
Instrumental Values: Preferred behaviors to achieve goals (e.g., honesty, discipline).
Generational Values
Differences in values across generations.
Lacks strong research support → Risk of stereotypes.
Cultural Values
Values differ across cultures.
Two frameworks: Hofstede’s Dimensions & GLOBE Framework.
1. Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions
Power Distance – Acceptance of hierarchy.
Individualism vs. Collectivism – Focus on self vs. group.
Masculinity vs. Femininity – Competitive vs. nurturing.
Uncertainty Avoidance – Tolerance for ambiguity.
Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation – Future focus vs. present focus.
2. The GLOBE Framework
Builds on Hofstede but adds:
Performance Orientation – Encourages excellence.
Humane Orientation – Emphasizes kindness & fairness.
Hofstede vs. GLOBE (Exhibit 5-5)
GLOBE expands Hofstede’s work with more dimensions.
Implications for Managers
Personality affects workplace performance.
Hiring: Consider person-job and person-organization fit.
Recognize situational influences on behavior.
Understand cultural values to manage global teams effectively.