LAW

Certainly! Here are concise definitions for each bullet point:

Amendments to the Constitution

• 1st Amendment – Expression: Protects freedoms concerning religion, expression, assembly, and the right to petition.

• 2nd Amendment – Arms: Grants the right to keep and bear arms.

• 4th Amendment – Searches/Seizures: Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures without probable cause or a warrant.

• 5th Amendment – Self-Incrimination / Due Process: Protects against self-incrimination and ensures due process of law.

• 6th Amendment – Right to Counsel: Guarantees the right to a fair trial and legal representation.

• 8th Amendment – Cruel and Unusual Punishment: Prohibits excessive bail, fines, and cruel and unusual punishments.

Freedom of Religion

• Establishment Clause: Prevents the government from establishing an official religion or favoring one over others.

• Free Exercise Clause: Protects individuals' rights to practice their religion without government interference.

• Everson v. Board of Ed.: Established that state-provided transportation to religious schools does not violate the Establishment Clause.

• Engel v. Vitale: Ruled that school-sponsored prayer violates the Establishment Clause.

• Lemon v. Kurtzman: Created the “excessive entanglement” test to determine if government actions improperly involve religion.

• Wisconsin v. Yoder: Held that compulsory school attendance laws violated Amish parents' rights under the Free Exercise Clause.

Freedom of Speech

• Time, Place, and Manner Regulations: Allow government to regulate when, where, and how speech occurs, provided restrictions are content-neutral.

• Symbolic Speech: Nonverbal actions that express ideas, which can be protected under the First Amendment.

• Obscenity (Miller Test): A three-part test to define obscenity, which is not protected by the First Amendment.

• U.S. v. O’Brien: Upheld a conviction for burning draft cards, ruling that the government’s interest in maintaining the draft outweighed free speech rights.

• Cohen v. California: Protected offensive speech on clothing as a form of expression under the First Amendment.

• Texas v. Johnson: Ruled that flag burning constitutes symbolic speech protected by the First Amendment.

• Tinker v. Des Moines: Affirmed that students retain First Amendment rights at school, allowing symbolic speech if it doesn’t disrupt the educational environment.

• Bethel School District v. Fraser: Limited student speech in schools if it is lewd or disruptive.

• Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier: Allowed schools to regulate school-sponsored publications and speech.

• Morse v. Frederick: Held that schools can restrict student speech promoting illegal drug use.

• Schenck v. United States: Established that speech presenting a "clear and present danger" is not protected.

Freedom of Press

• Libel: Defamation through false written statements that harm someone’s reputation.

• Prior Restraint: Government action preventing material from being published, typically presumed unconstitutional.

• New York Times Co. v. Sullivan: Protected press against libel claims unless statements were made with actual malice.

• New York Times Co. v. United States: Ruled that prior restraint could not be used to prevent publication of classified information unless it posed a direct threat to national security.

Balancing Liberty and Safety

• District of Columbia v. Heller: Affirmed an individual's right to possess firearms unconnected to service in a militia.

8th Amendment

• “Cruel and Unusual Punishment”: Prohibits punishment deemed inhumane or excessively severe.

• Gregg v. Georgia: Reaffirmed the constitutionality of the death penalty under the 8th Amendment.

4th Amendment

• “Unreasonable Searches or Seizures”: Protects against searches and seizures without probable cause or a warrant.

• Probable Cause: Sufficient reason based on facts to believe a crime has been committed.

• Warrants: Legal documents authorizing police to conduct a search or seizure.

• Katz v. United States: Established that the Fourth Amendment protects people, not just places, regarding privacy.

• Kyllo v. United States: Held that using thermal imaging to survey a home constitutes a search under the Fourth Amendment.

• Terry v. Ohio: Allowed limited "stop-and-frisk" searches based on reasonable suspicion.

• Mitchell v. Wisconsin: Upheld that law enforcement may take a blood sample from an unconscious driver suspected of DUI without a warrant.

Carpenter v. United States: Held that the government generally needs a warrant to access historical cell phone location records.