New Phase of the Civil Rights Movement (CRM): Black Power

Malcolm X:
- Critic of integrationist, nonviolent strategies.
- Emphasized three key concepts:
- Black self-defense: Advocated for the right of Black individuals to protect themselves.
- Self-determination: Encouraged autonomy and independence for Black communities.
- Pride: Fostered a sense of pride in Black identity and culture.
- Accused mainstream CRM leaders of being too accommodating to white authority.

NOI's Promotion:
- Black nationalism: Advocated for a separate identity and empowerment for Black people.
- Separation from white society: Stressed withdrawal from incorporation into white-dominated society.
- Strict discipline and moral guidelines: Emphasized ethical living according to Islamic teachings.
Role of Malcolm X:
- Served as NOI’s most powerful spokesperson, widely recognized for his powerful rhetoric and activism.
Tension with Elijah Muhammad:
- Tensions grew as Malcolm challenged Elijah Muhammad’s leadership and questioned the NOI’s strategies.

1964 Pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca:
- Marked a transformation in Malcolm X’s worldview.
- Witnessed interracial cooperation among Muslims, challenging his previous beliefs about racial separation.
- Embraced a broader understanding of social justice:
- Began supporting international human rights framing.
- Displayed a more willingness to collaborate with other civil rights leaders.
- Reduced emphasis on racial separation as a primary focus.
Assassination:
- Malcolm X was assassinated in 1965, highlighting the tensions and divisions within the movement.

Mid-1960s Dynamics:
- Frustration with the slow progress of civil rights initiatives, coupled with violent backlash against activists, led many to adopt radical views.
Introduction of "Black Power" Slogan:
- Coined by Stokely Carmichael during the Meredith March in 1966.
- Demands included:
- Political autonomy: Control of their own political destinies.
- Control of Black communities: Focused on local governance and self-sufficiency.
- Rejection of white leadership: Called for leadership and initiatives to be led by Black individuals.
- Cultural pride: Emphasized the value of Black culture and history.

Leadership Role:
- Became chair of SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) in 1966.
- Shifted the organization away from interracial cooperation towards:
- Black leadership only: Prioritized leadership by Black individuals.
- More militant stance: Advocated for a more confrontational approach.
SNCC’s Changes:
- Expelled white members as part of the shift in focus.
- Moved away from nonviolence toward a more aggressive methodology in pursuit of civil rights.

Foundation:
- Founded in 1966 in Oakland, California, by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale.
Key Features:
- Advocated for armed self-defense against police brutality.
- Developed community survival programs including:
- Free breakfast for children: Provided nutritional support to children in need.
- Health clinics: Offered medical services to underserved communities.
- Voter education: Aimed to enhance civic engagement and awareness.
- Drawn from Marxist influences: Emphasized economic justice as part of their platform.
Media Representation:
- Portrayed as militant through the use of leather jackets, guns, and aggressive posturing, overshadowing their community work.

Leadership:
- Renowned leader of the Illinois chapter of the BPP.
Coalition Building:
- Established a multiracial “Rainbow Coalition” among impoverished communities, fostering solidarity.
Known For:
- Charisma and exceptional organizing skills.
- Initiated free breakfast and community programs to serve local families.
Demise:
- Assassinated in 1969 during a Chicago police/FBI raid, with reported involvement of COINTELPRO (FBI’s covert operation).

Detroit Riot (July 1967):
- Triggered by police raid on an after-hours club, leading to widespread unrest.
- Resulted in massive destruction and deployment of federal troops to restore order.
- Reflected deeper frustrations with systemic issues such as:
- Racism
- Poverty
- Job discrimination
- Housing segregation
- Police brutality

Police Actions:
- Heavy-handed policing exacerbated violence in communities.
- Officials often blamed "criminals" while failing to address underlying systemic issues.

Establishment:
- Created by President Lyndon B. Johnson to investigate the causes of urban riots.
Famous Conclusion:
- Noted that “Our nation is moving toward two societies, one Black, one white—separate and unequal.”
Recommendations:
- Suggested massive investment in:
- Jobs
- Housing
- Anti-poverty programs.
- Recommendations were largely ignored by the federal government, reflecting a lack of commitment to change.

Shift in Focus:
- Martin Luther King Jr. shifted his focus towards economic justice on a nationwide scale.
Poor People’s Campaign Objectives:
- Sought the establishment of:
- Federal jobs program: To stimulate employment among marginalized populations.
- Living wages: Aim for adequate compensation for work.
- Fair housing: Commitment to equitable housing practices.
Coalition Building:
- Organized a multi-racial coalition of poor Americans to collectively address these issues.
Memphis Strike (1968):
- Sanitation workers, predominantly Black men, initiated a strike for:
- Higher wages
- Union recognition
- Dignity, symbolized by the “I AM A MAN” signs.
- King traveled to support the striking workers, emphasizing solidarity.

Circumstances of Death:
- Assassinated while supporting the Memphis sanitation strike.
National Response:
- Triggered nationwide grief and anger, leading to riots in over 100 cities.
Impact on the Movement:
- Movement’s unity significantly fractured after King’s death, creating divisions among various factions.

Advocacy:
- Promoted racial reconciliation and anti-poverty programs.
Important Speeches:
- Delivered a powerful speech in Indianapolis to a crowd announcing King’s death, calling for unity and compassion.
Assassination:
- Assassinated in June 1968 after winning the California primary, adding to the national turmoil.

Events:
- Anti-war demonstrators faced confrontation from Chicago Police and the National Guard.
Media Coverage:
- Brutal beatings took place and were broadcast on national television, exposing the violence.
Investigations’ Conclusion:
- Convention later labeled as “a police riot” due to the excessive response by law enforcement.
Symbolism:
- This event symbolized the widespread nationwide division over issues such as Vietnam, race, and the growing protest movements.