Copy of Unit 4 Review

Kennedy: To the Brink of War and Back

• Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)

  • JFK approved a plan to use CIA-trained Cuban exiles to overthrow Castro.

  • The invasion failed because it did not set off a popular uprising.

  • Kennedy refused to send American troops.

  • Castro used the failed invasion to get more aid from the Soviet Union.

• Berlin Wall

  • Kennedy met with Khrushchev in Vienna in 1961, where Khrushchev demanded the US leave West Berlin.

  • Kennedy refused.

  • East Germany built the Berlin Wall to prevent East Berliners from escaping to the West.

  • US and USSR tanks faced off as the wall was built.

  • Kennedy called up reserves but did not take action to stop the wall's construction.

  • Kennedy later visited West Berlin to show American support.

• Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

  • Most dangerous moment in US-Soviet relations.

  • In response to the Bay of Pigs, Castro asked the Soviets to build missile sites in Cuba.

  • These missiles could reach the US in minutes.

  • Kennedy responded with a naval blockade of Cuba.

  • A 13-day standoff ensued, bringing the world close to nuclear war.

  • If Khrushchev had challenged the blockade with the Soviet navy, it could have escalated drastically.

• Results of the Cuban Missile Crisis

  • Both sides were shaken by the experience.

  • A direct telephone line was established between Moscow and Washington D.C.

  • Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963)

    • US, USSR, and over 100 other nations signed.

    • It ended atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons.

    • Production of nuclear arms continued.

• Flexible Response

  • The threat of nuclear war did not stop the US and USSR from engaging in proxy wars.

  • The US typically supported governments fighting Soviet-backed rebels.

  • Examples include conflicts in Congo, Laos, and Vietnam.

  • Kennedy rethought Dulles' diplomacy and brinkmanship.

  • He sought more options to avoid global destruction.

  • Flexible Response meant increased spending on conventional arms and military forces.

• 1960 Election

  • JFK elected president after criticizing Eisenhower for recession and allowing the Soviets to take the lead in the arms race.

  • The US was actually winning the arms race, but the American public was unsure after Sputnik.

LBJ, Nixon, and the Cold War

• Lyndon B. Johnson Becomes President (1963-1969)

  • Sworn into office after Kennedy's assassination.

  • Former Senate leader.

  • More concerned with domestic affairs and continuing the New Deal than foreign policy.

  • Continued the containment policy, most notably in Vietnam.

  • Soviet negotiations continued despite the Vietnam War.

  • The Soviets wanted a closer relationship with the US due to worsening relations with China and the expense of the arms race.

  • Signed the Outer Space Treaty.

  • Laid the foundation for Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I and II).

  • Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968): US, GB, USSR agreed not to help other countries develop or acquire nuclear weapons.

• During his presidency, the US and USSR planned to meet for further disarmament talks.

  • The Soviets violently suppressed the Prague Spring (a movement to democratize Czechoslovakia), and the summit was called off.

• Nixon's Détente Diplomacy (1969-1974)

  • Nixon campaigned on uniting the country after the turbulent 1960s.

  • Focused on foreign policy.

  • Worked with national security advisor Henry Kissinger to make a "realist" or "pragmatist" approach.

  • Ended the Vietnam War and decreased Cold War tension.

  • Détente strengthened the American position by leveraging the Soviet Union and Communist China against each other.

  • Détente is defined as the deliberate reduction of Cold War tensions.

  • Despite the Watergate scandal, Nixon is credited with helping keep world peace.

• Visit to China

  • Nixon, a long-time critic of Communism, couldn't openly recognize Mao Zedong and China.

  • He met with Mao privately.

  • Surprised the world by meeting with Mao in 1972 and beginning diplomatic exchanges.

• Arms Control with the USSR

  • Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I): treaty limiting anti-ballistic missiles.

  • The Soviets agreed to freeze the number of ballistic missiles carrying nuclear warheads.

  • Didn't end the arms race but began a significant Cold War thaw.

Another Heat Up in the Cold War

• Soviets Invade Afghanistan

  • President Jimmy Carter (1977-1981) wanted to continue Nixon/Ford Détente with China and the USSR.

  • SALT II treaty proposed to limit superpowers' nuclear delivery systems but was never signed due to renewed Cold War tension over Afghanistan.

  • 1979: Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan.

  • The US was concerned about Soviets trying to control Persian Gulf oil.

  • Carter responded by:

    • Placing an embargo on grain exports and the sale of high tech to the USSR.

    • Boycotting the 1980 Moscow Olympics.

    • Switching from arms reduction to build-up.

• Return to Tension

  • The end of Carter's administration saw a renewal of intense tension and arms buildup between the US and the USSR.

• Views of the Cold War

  • Traditionally, it's believed that the creation of Satellite States by the USSR began the Cold War, and the US was simply a defender of freedom.

  • Revisionists argued Truman stoked tension by antagonizing the Soviets in Poland and the Balkans.

  • Some even suggested Truman dropped the bomb in WWII only to warn the Soviets.

  • Ultimately, Cold War tension resulted from failures of negotiation at the end of WWII.

• Nixon resigned after the Watergate scandal, and S Vietnam fell to communism, resulting in an unhappy/distrustful American people against further military intervention.

• Congress investigated the executive branch and the CIA for abuses, including the assassination of foreign leaders, like the Marxist president of Chile.

Economy under the Democrats (1961 - 1969)

• Kennedy

  • Elected at 41, the youngest candidate ever elected. First Catholic president.

  • "The torch has been passed to a new generation."

  • Witty, stylish, young, handsome, glamorous. He and his wife Jackie brought appreciation of the arts to the White House.

  • Promised a "New Frontier".

  • Surrounded himself with business executives like Robert McNamara and academics like John Kenneth Galbraith. His younger brother Robert was Attorney General.

• New Frontier Programs

  • Wanted aid to education, federal support of healthcare, urban renewal, and civil rights.

  • Domestic initiatives languished in Congress. Kennedy was only in office for 1000 days, and very few pieces of domestic legislation were passed.

  • Many were carried on by his predecessor, Johnson.

  • Kennedy was more successful with economic policy.

  • Trade Expansion Act (1962): authorized tariff reduction with the new European Economic Community (Common Market) of West Europe.

  • Achieved price rollbacks in the steel industry.

  • The economy was stimulated by defense and space spending.

• Johnson’s Domestic Reforms

  • Kennedy was assassinated in 1963, and his VP Lyndon B. Johnson became president.

  • After years in the Senate, he knew how to pass legislation.

  • Aggressively pursued Kennedy's domestic programs and persuaded Congress to pass:

    • An expanded version of Kennedy's Civil Rights bill

    • Kennedy's proposal for income tax cut

      • Later sparked an increase in consumer spending and jobs, leading to long economic expansion in the 60s

  • Johnson’s big domestic push was "The Great Society".

  • Considered high point of liberalism.

Nixon’s Domestic Policy

• Republicans regained the White House with Nixon in '68 and reelection in '72, but Democrats held Congress. Nixon used compromise to get Congress on his side, ushering in an era of Conservatism.

• Nixon and Welfare

  • Nixon tried to slow Johnson’s Great Society by proposing the Family Assistance Plan, which would have replaced welfare with a guaranteed annual income for working Americans.

  • The Democratic majority in Congress rejected it.

• New Federalism

  • Nixon saw success with his revenue-sharing plan known as “New Federalism”.

  • Shifted some responsibility for social programs from the federal to state and local levels.

  • Congress gave local governments 30 billion in grants over five years to address local needs, as opposed to using federal funds as the federal government dictated.

  • Hoped it would check federal spending and return responsibility to the states.

  • Attempted to bypass Congress by impounding, or not spending, social program money.

  • Democrats said this was an abuse of power.

  • Courts agreed, stating it was the president's duty to carry out laws passed by Congress.

• Nixon's Economic Policies

  • Starting in the 1970s, the economy experienced stagnation, a combination of economic slowdown and high inflation.

  • Nixon tried to slow inflation by cutting federal spending, leading to recession.

  • Turned to Keynesian deficit spending so as not to alienate the middle class.

  • Imposed a 90-day wage and price freeze.

  • Took the dollar off the gold standard.

  • Imposed a 10% surtax on all imports.

  • These actions cost consumers but made US-produced goods more competitive in other countries.

  • By the 1972 election, the recession was over, and Congress had approved auto increases for Social Security based on the cost of living.

  • The poor, the old, and the disabled were now protected from the worst of inflation.

Ford and Carter Confront Inflation

• President Gerald Ford (1974-1977) confronted rising inflation by urging businesses and consumers to fight inflation by minimizing price and wage increases (“Whip Inflation Now!”).

• Inflation continued, and the economy went into recession, with unemployment rising to 9%.

• Ford vetoed most Democratic bills but agreed to a stimulus package to help the economy.

• President Jimmy Carter (1977-1981) tried to check inflation by conserving energy, like oil, and reviving the US coal industry.

• It didn't work, and by 1980, inflation was at an unheard-of 13%.

• Troubled Economy

  • Consumers and businesses could no longer afford the high interest rates that came with high prices.

  • Inflation pushed the middle class into higher tax brackets, leading to a "taxpayers revolt."

  • Federal social programs tied to the inflation rate pushed the deficit to 60 billion in 1980.

  • To reduce inflation, interest rates were pushed up to 20% by chairman of the Federal Reserve Board, Paul Volcker.

  • It hurt consumers, and the auto and building industries laid off 10s of 1000s of workers.

  • It did reduce inflation. By 1982, it was under 4%.

• Economic Shift of the 1970s

  • High inflation, high-interest rates, and high unemployment combined to make Americans change the way they viewed the economy.

  • The economic recovery of other post-war nations challenged the US position as the strongest economy in the world.

  • Overseas, cheaper consumer products challenged American-made products.

  • New Technology required fewer workers.

The Middle East

• Yom Kippur (October) War and Oil Embargo

  • 1973: Syria and Egypt attacked Israel to regain lost land on the Jewish holiday Yom Kippur.

  • Nixon ordered nuclear weapons on high alert and sent 2 billion in arms to Israel.

  • The tide turned to Israel, and the war was soon over.

• Impact

  • OPEC placed an oil embargo on all supporters of Israel, creating a worldwide oil shortage.

  • The US economy was already sluggish with high inflation.

  • Manufacturing jobs were lost.

  • Americans turned to foreign-made fuel-efficient cars.

  • Auto workers lost 225,000 jobs.

  • Congress passed a 55 MPH speed limit and approved the Alaskan pipeline to get American oil.

  • The US economy struggled for the remainder of the decade.

• Camp David Accords

  • President Carter’s greatest achievement.

  • 1977: Egyptian president Anwar Sadat took the first step towards peace in the ME by visiting Israeli PM Menachem Begin in Jerusalem.

  • 1978: Carter invited them to Camp David to continue peace talks and make a framework for peace.

  • 1979: As a result of Camp David talks, Egypt became the 1st ME country to recognize Israel.

  • Israel returned Siani land taken from Egypt in the 6-day war.

  • The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and most of the Arab world opposed the treaty, but it was an important first step towards peace in the region.

• Iran and the Hostage Crisis

  • Anti-American sentiment was high after the US overthrow of the democratically elected government and the installation of the shah.

  • The Shah gave W cheap oil, but Iranians didn’t like his policies of Westernization.

  • 1979: Islamic fundamentalists led by Ayatollah Khomeini overthrew the Shah, who fled the country.

  • Iranian oil exports ground to a halt, causing a 2nd worldwide shortage.

  • 1979: The US let the Shah into the country for medical treatment.

  • Iranian militants responded by seizing the US embassy in Tehran, taking 50 Americans hostage.

  • Carter tried numerous times to rescue the hostages, but they were all unsuccessful.

  • Symbolized a failed presidency.

Latin America

• In 1954, Eisenhower supported a CIA covert operation in Guatemala because they had threatened American business interests. Opposition to communism in LA sometimes pushed America to work with corrupt dictators, sometimes leading to anti-American feelings, like when Nixon’s motorcade was attacked.

• Kennedy’s Policies

  • Turned his attention to policies related to developing countries.

  • 1961: Set up the Peace Corps to recruit young Americans to volunteer and give technical aid to developing countries.

  • 1961: Alliance for Progress: a US program to promote land reform and economic development in LA.

  • These were well-liked, but covert action led by the CIA led to anti-American feelings in the region.

  • Included the 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion and plots to assassinate Communist leaders like Fidel Castro.

• Return of the "Big Stick"

  • Became more interventionist in LA (reminiscent of Teddy's Big Stick Policy) to prevent communism under President Johnson.

  • More concerned with LA NOT being Communist than being Democratic.

  • Allowed Alliance for Progress to wither away.

  • Sent troops to the Dominican Republic to prevent a Communist takeover in the Caribbean.

  • 1964: Backed a right-wing military coup in Brazil.

  • Forcibly put down resistance in the Canal Zone.

  • Did start negotiations that would end in returning the Canal Zone to Panama in 1999.

  • Would unilaterally prevent any Communist takeover in the W. Hemisphere.

• Panama Canal

  • Negotiated a new peace treaty in 1978, which would gradually transfer control of the Panama Canal from the US to Panama.

  • Some criticized the “giveaway” of the Panama Zone.

Policies in Africa

• Nation-building was especially difficult in Africa. Belgium abruptly gave the Congo independence in 1960, immediately resulting in Civil War. The US helped stop the insurrection to prevent them from going Communist, causing resentment amongst African nationalists as the threat was probably exaggerated.

• Remnants of Colonialism

  • Nixon wasn't too concerned with Africa but did strengthen ties with White minority governments in Portuguese Angola, Rhodesia, S Africa.

  • Black rebels tried to take control in Angola, and the CIA spent millions on covert actions to prevent the Communist-backed takeover.

  • After Nixon resigned, Congress stopped the funding, and the Soviet-backed party took control of Angola.

  • The US decided to no longer only back white minority governments who employed apartheid (segregationist) policies in Africa.

• Human Rights Diplomacy

  • Carter was a huge proponent of human rights diplomacy.

  • Appointed Andrew Young, an African American, to be the US ambassador to the UN.

  • They championed human rights by opposing the oppression of Black majorities in S Africa and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) by all-White governments.

  • The US cut off foreign aid to Argentina and Chile because of human rights violations by the military in those countries.

Limits of a Superpower

• 1969: Viewers around the world watched two Americans walk on the moon.

  • This + other Space victories = a high point of the 1970s in the US.

  • Watergate, a slow economy, and the fall of S Vietnam to communism were some low points.

• Economic Challenges

  • Increased foreign economic activity, oil shortages, rising unemployment, and high inflation = the US recognized to stay in power it would have to adjust to a quickly changing world.

  • The US cut back on foreign aid to developing nations.

  • The US was concerned it was losing its competitive edge, which had been the basis of post-WWII military superiority.

The Vietnam War

• Essential Question: What were the causes and effects of the Vietnam War?

• Context:

  • The French lost Indochina (Vietnam) after the Japanese invaded in WWII.

  • They tried to retake it after the war.

  • Native Cambodians and Vietnamese wanted independence and resisted.

  • French imperialism increased support for nationalist and communist leader Ho Chi Minh.

Eisenhower’s Domino Theory

• France VS Independent Indochina became a battle of the Cold War, with the US supporting France and USSR/China supporting Indochina. While the French were being pushed out, they asked Truman to send troops, but he said no. At the 1954 Geneva Conference, France gave up claims to land, and independent nations of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam were formed.

• Division of Vietnam

  • Under the Geneva convention, Vietnam would be divided until an election could be held to unite it in 1956.

  • N. fell under Ho Chi Minh and a Communist dictatorship and had the support of China/Soviet Bloc.

  • S. was under Ngo Dinh Diem and supported by anti-Communist, Catholic, and urban Vietnamese and had the support of the West.

• The reunification election never happened because the S. was nervous Communism would win.

  • The US sent 1 billion dollars in aid from '55 to '61 to help support a stable anti-communist government.

  • Eisenhower justified this in a speech outlining the Domino Theory: If one domino fell to communism in SE Asia, they would all fall, resulting in even Australia and New Zealand being in danger.

• SEATO

  • The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization created by Sec of State John Foster Dulles to help prevent S Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from "falling" to communism.

  • Agreed to help each other in the event of an attack.

  • US, GB, France, Australia, NZ, the Philippines, Thailand, and Pakistan all signed on in 1954.

Escalation of the Vietnam War in the 1960s

• While the Vietnam war wasn’t even an issue in the Nixon/Kennedy election, by LBJ it dominated the national conversation. In the tragic conflict, 2.7 million Americans served, with 58,000 dying in the effort to prevent S Vietnam falling to Communism.

• Buildup Under Kennedy

  • Kennedy believed in Eisenhower's Domino Theory, so he continued aid and sent military "advisers" to Vietnam to train their army and guard weapons facilities.

  • 1963 - 16,000 US troops in S. Vietnam for support, not combat, roles.

  • PROBLEM: US ally Ngo Dinh Diem wasn't very well-liked.

    • Lost the support of peasants in the countryside.

    • Buddhist monks set themselves on fire in the capital Saigon.

    • Diem was overthrown and killed by S. Vietnamese generals two weeks before Kennedy was assassinated.

    • Historians have since learned the Kennedy administration knew of the attack on Diem before it happened.

• Tonkin Gulf Resolution

  • By 1964, Vietnam had 7 different governments fighting for power.

  • Johnson was criticized after Kennedy's assassination for not giving enough aid in the fight against the Vietcong.

  • Tonkin Gulf Resolution gave the president power to take “all necessary measures” to protect US interests in Vietnam after Johnson asked for a US military response after a US warship was shot at by a N Vietnamese gunboat

  • The naval incident was used to launch a full-scale war.

  • Later, the War Powers Act limits this power.

• Critics

  • Called the Vietnam war illegal because Congress never declared war.

  • Congress didn't care and didn't withdraw the resolution.

  • Johnson was stuck. How can he defend the weak S. Vietnam without making it a foreign war?

  • Would war completely derail his Great Society program at home?

America’s War

• Escalation

  • Post-1965, military advisors recommended expanding operations in Vietnam to protect Saigon.

  • Operation Rolling Thunder: a response to the Vietnamese attack on a US base. B-52 bombers were used against N. Vietnamese targets.

  • April 1965: US troops used in combat for the first time.

  • At the end of 1965, 184,000 troops were in Vietnam in a combat role.

• Johnson continued to increase US involvement, hoping to win a war of attrition. By 1967, 485,000 troops were in Vietnam.

• Credibility Gap

  • Misinformation from military and civilian leaders + Johnson's evasions about the war = credibility gap.

  • Johnson believed a little more pressure would bring N Vietnam to the table, but it didn't work.

  • Ultimately, American leaders just didn't understand their enemy well enough.

• Hawks versus Doves

  • Hawks: Supporters of the war believed war was an act of Soviet-backed Communist Aggression against S. Vietnam with a plan to conquer all of SE Asia.

  • Doves: Opponents of the war saw it as a Civil War between nationalists and Communists.

  • Some opposed because it cost lives and money, and the billions spent on the war should be spent on domestic issues.

  • The anti-war movement grew on college campuses.

• Tet Offensive

  • January 1968: N Vietnamese launched a surprise attack on every provincial capital and American base in S. Vietnam.

  • It took a big toll in the cities, but the US counterattack inflicted much heavier losses on the Vietcong and recovered all lost territory.

  • It failed but had a big impact on the US.

  • Americans watched the attacks on TVs and believed it to be a setback for Johnson.

  • Showed US victory was not imminent.

  • Tet = military loss but political victory for N Vietnamese.

  • Demoralized the American public.

• Johnson Ends Escalation

  • The Joint Chiefs asked for 200,000 more troops, but Cold War advisers warned against further escalation.

  • 1968: Johnson went on TV and told the American people he would limit bombing in N Vietnam and start peace talks.

  • SURPRISE: He also wasn’t going to run for president.

  • May 1968: Peace talks began in Paris but were derailed.

  • The war continued, 1000s more died, but US escalation had stopped.

Coming Apart at Home, 1968

• 1968 was one of the most turbulent years in US history. The Tet Offensive, the withdrawal of Johnson from the presidential ticket, the assassination of MLK Jr., and destructive race riots led the American people to believe the country was coming apart from internal race and war conflicts, as well as disagreements between baby boomers and their parents.

• Election of 1968

  • Robert Kennedy challenged anti-war activist Eugene F. McCarthy who had been gaining support but was then shot and killed by an Arab nationalist.

• Democratic Convention in Chicago

  • Humphrey, Johnson's VP, controlled the convention but the real story was the anti-war demonstrations happening in the streets.

  • Chicago police were out en masse, and the resulting violence was televised as a police riot.

  • The Democratic party was divided, and the underdog.

• White Backlash and George Wallace

  • Alabama governor tapped into white resentment over desegregation, antiwar protests, and race riots.

  • Attacked “point head liberals” and the Washington establishment.

  • Nominated himself for the American Independent Party to try and throw the Election in the HOR.

• Return of Richard Nixon

  • The front runner in the Republican primary despite a failed gubernatorial run in California.

  • Nixon was a "hawk" and chose Maryland Governor Spiro Agnew as VP.

  • Had similar rhetoric to George Wallace.

  • Ran on ideas of "Peace with Honor" and "Law and Order".

• Results

  • Nixon barely beat Humphrey, who appealed to New Deal democrats, in the popular vote but easily won the electoral vote.

  • The number of votes given to Nixon and Wallace show the American people were tired of the upheavals of the 60s.

  • Didn't want protest, violence, permissiveness, counterculture, drugs, federal intervention, and social institutions.

  • Tide was turning against New Deal liberalism towards conservatism.

Richard Nixon’s Vietnam Policy

• Nixon’s first interest was foreign, not domestic, policy. He did campaign on bringing the people together after the rocky '60s but secluded himself in the White House, creating an "imperial" presidency. With nat’l security advisor Henry Kissinger he advanced pragmatic foreign policy that reduced Cold War tensions.

• Vietnamization

  • Nixon wanted to reduce US troops in Vietnam without conceding defeat ➔ Wanted “Peace with Honor” ➔ Vietnamization - gradually withdraw troops and gives Vietnam money, weapons, and training they needed to take over the war

  • From 69 to 72, troops went from 540,000 to 30,000 ➔ Nixon Doctrine - future Asian alliances would get US support without the use of US ground forces

• Opposition to Cold War Policies

  • Anti-war protests lessened until the US invaded Cambodia in 1970 to stamp out the Vietnamese Communist presence there.

    • Kent State - National Guard Troops killed 4 young people on college campus protesting the war. 2 were also killed at Jackson State in Mississippi Congress voted to repeal Gulf of Tonkin Resolution as a result. My Lai Massacre - a massacre of women and children by American forces in 1968 further shocked the public Pentagon Papers - secret government study document mistakes and deceptions of the government in Vietnam published by New York Times Papers leaked by Daniel Ellsberg - for Department of Defense Analyst.

• Peace Talks, Bombing Attacks, and Armistice

  • Nixon and Kissinger held secret meetings with N Vietnam’s foreign minister, later saying “peace was at hand” prematurely

  • Two sides couldn’t reach a deal, and Nixon ordered mass bombing on N Vietnam to try and force a settlement ❏ Paris Accords - N. Vietnam agreed to armistice after several weeks of bombing
    US would withdraw troops and get back 500 POWs Ceasefire and free elections in Vietnam Did not end war between N and South and left lots of enemy troops in South Vietnam Did allow the US to remove itself from the war War Powers Act - Nixon was hurt when it came out that he authorized 3,500 secret bombing raids in Cambodia a neutral country. Congress used the uproar to limit the power of the president over the military. 1973 - War Powers act passed over Nixon’s veto Required president to report to congress within 48 hours of military action Congress had to approve any military action that lasted more than 60 days.

Defeat in Southeast Asia

• In 1974, S Vietnam continued to face attacks from COmmunist forces, but President Ford was unable to get additional funds to support US military involvement.

• Fall of Saigon

  • 1975: The US-supported government in Saigon fell, and Vietnam was reunited under a Communist government in Hanoi.

  • The US was able to evacuate 150,000 Vietnamese who had supported the US.

  • Marked a low point in American prestige overseas and confidence at home.

• Genocide in Cambodia

  • Also in 1975, the US-supported government in Cambodia fell to the Khmer Rouge, a radical Communist faction.

  • Killed between 1 and 2 million of its own people in a relocation program meant to stamp out Western influences.

  • 1/4th of the population

• Future of SE Asia

  • After the fall of Cambodia, people were worried Eisenhower's domino theory was playing out.

    • It wasn’t.

      • “Little Tigers” such as Singapore, Thailand, and Malaysia saw rapidly growing economies.

        • Some used this as evidence that the US effort in Vietnam was not a waste, as it gave these nations time to stabilize to better resist communism.

The Great Society

• Essential Question: What were the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government over time?

• Context:

  • Lyndon B. Johnson was inaugurated 2 hours after the assassination of President Kennedy. Seemed unsophisticated compared to Kennedy.

  • Johnson was determined to expand New Deal Social Reforms in his “Great Society” program.

  • After spending 30 years in Congress, he knew how to get stuff passed!

The War on Poverty and the Election of 1964

• Michael Harrington’s 1962 book entitled The Other America helped focus national attention on 40 million Americans living in poverty.

  • Johnson responded by declaring “War on Poverty". Democratic Congress gave Johnson almost everything he asked for, granting the Office of Economic Opportunity - Antipoverty agency billion-dollar budget. Sponsored a wide variety of self-help programs for the poor, including Head Start for preschoolers, Job Corps for vocational education, literacy programs, and legal services. Democrats: Johnson and Hubert Humphrey ran on a clearly liberal agenda Republicans: Barry Goldwater - Wanted to end the welfare state including Tennessee Valley Authority and Social Security Dems painted him as a dangerous extremist who would start nuclear war Johnson won the election by a landslide Democrats controlled both houses of Congress, allowing them to pass whatever social program they wanted.

Great Society Reforms

• Congress increased funding for mass transportation, public housing, rent subsidies, and crime prevention.

• Johnson est. 2 new cabinet departments: Department of Transportation (DOT) and Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD).

• Congress passed auto industry regulations due to Unsafe at Any Speed by Ralph Nader.

• Clear air and water laws were passed due to Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring expose.

• Federal parks and wilderness areas were expanded.

• The Beautify America campaign, led by LBJ's wife, Lady Bird Johnson, helped improve the environment with the Highway Beautification Act that removed billboards from federal highways.

• Evaluating the Great Society

  • Critics said unrealistic promises were made to eradicate poverty, a welfare state was centralized, and GS was inefficient and very costly.

  • Defenders say it gave assistance to millions who had been forgotten or ignored

  • Escalations in Vietnam jeopardized the domestic programs.

Changes in Immigration

• Prior to 1960 - Most immigrants came from Europe and Canada.

• 1980s - 47% of immigrants came from Latin America, 37% from Asia, and less than 13% from Europe and Canada ○ Shift was partly caused by refugees leaving Cuba and Vietnam after the Communist takeovers there Immigration Act of 1965 - ended the ethnic quota acts of the 1920s favoring Europeans and opening the US to immigration from all parts of the world Legal immigration increased sharply, with 1970s seeing around 400,000 immigrants each year Many years between 1990 and 2020 exceeding a million immigrants a year

African American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s

• Essential Question: How and why did various groups respond to calls for the expansion of civil rights from 1960 to 1980? How did the federal government respond to the same call?

• Context:

  • Civil Rights had gained momentum during the Kennedy and LBJ administrations.

  • Kennedy didn't press the issue because his election was close, and he didn't want to alienate white voters.

  • The refusal of the University of Mississippi to allow a young African American, air force veteran James Meredith, forced his hand Federal court supported his right to attend Kennedy sent 400 marshals and 3000 troops to enforce the federal court ruling.

The Leadership of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

• King Jr. remained committed to nonviolent protests against segregationFreedom riders traveled around the South to register African Americans to vote and integrate public spaces Often met with beatings, bombings, and murder Dr. King’s “Letter from Birmingham Jail” MLK Jr. was arrested for what authorities claimed to be an illegal march. His public letter pushed Kennedy to support tougher Civil Rights legislation. March on Washington - One of the largest and most successful demonstrations in US History There to support jobs and civil rights bill

Federal Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1965

• 1964 Civil Rights Act ➔ Made segregation illegal in all public facilities, including hotels and restaurants Gave fed. Gov’t more power to enforce school desegregation 24th

JFK was elected at 41, making him the youngest candidate ever elected. He was also the first Catholic president.

JFK approved a plan to use CIA-trained Cuban exiles to overthrow Castro because Castro had aligned himself with the Soviet Union, a major adversary of the US during the Cold War. Additionally, Castro's policies were seen as a threat to American business interests in Cuba.

The Bay of Pigs invasion failed because it did not set off a popular uprising. Kennedy refused to send American troops. Castro used the failed invasion to get more aid from the Soviet Union.

In response to the Bay of Pigs, Castro asked the Soviets to build missile sites in Cuba. These missiles could reach the US in minutes.

In response to the Bay of Pigs, Castro asked the Soviets to build missile sites in Cuba. These missiles could reach the US in minutes.

In response to the Bay of Pigs, Castro asked the Soviets to build missile sites in Cuba. These missiles could reach the US in minutes.

Kennedy's assassination had a profound impact on the United States, leading to a period of national mourning and uncertainty. It also propelled his Vice President, Lyndon B. Johnson, into the presidency, setting the stage for significant legislative changes and the continuation of Kennedy's policy initiatives.

Lyndon B. Johnson, upon assuming the presidency after Kennedy's assassination, played a crucial role in carrying forward Kennedy's legacy. Leveraging his extensive experience in the Senate, Johnson skillfully navigated Kennedy's stalled domestic programs through Congress, ensuring their enactment into law. These included an expanded version of Kennedy's Civil Rights bill and Kennedy’s proposal for an income tax cut, which spurred economic growth. Additionally, Johnson's 'Great Society' initiatives, aimed at addressing poverty and social inequality, were heavily influenced by the ideals of Kennedy's 'New Frontier,' solidifying Kennedy's vision as a cornerstone of his own administration.

Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ) and John F. Kennedy (JFK) had distinct backgrounds and leadership styles despite both serving as Democratic presidents in the 1960s.

1. Backgrounds: JFK came from a wealthy, privileged background and was known for his charisma and youthful appeal. LBJ, on the other hand, had a more humble background, hailing from Texas, and built his career through decades of political maneuvering in Congress.

2. Legislative Skills: LBJ was a master legislator, leveraging his extensive experience in the Senate to pass significant civil rights and social programs. While JFK proposed many initiatives, he struggled to get them through Congress. LBJ's deep understanding of legislative processes and his ability to negotiate and build consensus were key to his success.

3. Policy Focus: Both presidents shared a commitment to liberal policies. JFK's 'New Frontier' focused on economic growth, space exploration, and civil rights. LBJ expanded on these themes with his 'Great Society,' which included a broad range of social reforms aimed at poverty reduction, education, and healthcare.

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The goal of Johnson's 'Great Society' was to expand on JFK's 'New Frontier' and include a broad range of social reforms aimed at poverty reduction, education, and healthcare.

The goal of Johnson's 'Great Society' was to expand on JFK's 'New Frontier' and include a broad range of social reforms aimed at poverty reduction, education, and healthcare.

The goal of Johnson's 'Great Society' was to expand on JFK's 'New Frontier' and include a broad range of social reforms aimed at poverty reduction, education, and healthcare.

The goal of Johnson's 'Great Society' was to expand on JFK's 'New Frontier' and include a broad range of social reforms aimed at poverty reduction, education, and healthcare.

According to the slides, some monumental pieces of legislation that came out of the Great Society include increased funding for mass transportation, public housing, rent subsidies, and crime prevention. Additionally, new cabinet departments such as the Department of Transportation (DOT) and the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) were established.

Critics said unrealistic promises were made to eradicate poverty, a welfare state was centralized, and the Great Society was inefficient and very costly. Defenders say it gave assistance to millions who had been forgotten or ignored. Escalations in Vietnam jeopardized the domestic programs.

Freedom Riders were civil rights activists who rode interstate buses into the segregated Southern United States in the 1960s to challenge local laws and customs that enforced segregation in seating. They aimed to test Boynton v. Virginia, which had outlawed racial segregation in interstate bus facilities. Freedom Riders faced severe violence and arrest, drawing national attention to the civil rights movement. Their actions highlighted the injustice

During the 1960s, sit-ins were nonviolent protests where activists occupied segregated spaces like lunch counters. Participants, often students, would sit peacefully and refuse to leave when denied service due to their race. Sit-ins aimed to disrupt normal business operations and challenge discriminatory policies publicly. These protests

The Civil Rights Movement achieved significant milestones through legal and social reforms. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed segregation in public facilities and employment, while the Voting Rights Act of 1965 eliminated discriminatory voting practices. These legislative victories, combined with increased social and political awareness, marked substantial progress in the

Kennedy believed in Eisenhower's Domino Theory, so he continued aid and sent military "advisers" to Vietnam to train their army and guard weapons facilities.

1963 - 16,000 US troops in S. Vietnam for support, not combat, roles.

PROBLEM: US ally Ngo Dinh Diem wasn't very well-liked.

Lost the support of peasants in the countryside.

Buddhist monks set themselves on fire in the capital Saigon.

Diem was overthrown and killed by S. Vietnamese generals two weeks before Kennedy was assassinated.

Historians have since learned the Kennedy administration knew of the attack on Diem before it happened.

By 1964, Vietnam had 7 different governments fighting for power.

Johnson was criticized after Kennedy's assassination for not giving enough aid in the fight against the Vietcong.

Tonkin Gulf Resolution gave the president power to take “all necessary measures” to protect US interests in Vietnam after Johnson asked for a US military response after a US warship was shot at by a N Vietnamese gunboat

The naval incident was used to launch a full-scale war.

Later, the War Powers Act limits this power.

Nixon expanded the bombing in Cambodia and Laos to stamp out the Vietnamese Communist presence there. He authorized 3,500 secret bombing raids in Cambodia, a neutral country. It was kept secret from the US public, and when it came out, it caused an uproar, leading Congress to limit the power of the president over the military through the War Powers Act.

Nixon wanted to reduce US troops in Vietnam without conceding defeat ➔ Wanted “Peace with Honor” ➔ Vietnamization - gradually withdraw troops and gives Vietnam money, weapons, and training

Hawks: Supporters of the war believed war was an act of Soviet-backed Communist Aggression against S. Vietnam with a plan to conquer all of SE Asia.

• Doves: Opponents of the war saw it as a Civil War between nationalists and Communists. Some opposed because it cost lives and money, and the billions spent on the war should be spent on domestic issues.

Some Americans opposed the war because:

• Doves: Opponents of the war saw it as a Civil War between nationalists and Communists.

• Some opposed because it cost lives and money, and the billions spent on the war should be spent on domestic issues.

The year 1968 was particularly important for the opposition to the Vietnam War because of the Tet Offensive, which significantly demoralized the American public and showed that a US victory was not imminent. Additionally, President Johnson's announcement that he would limit bombing in North Vietnam and not seek reelection further fueled the anti-war movement.

Pentagon Papers - secret government study document mistakes and deceptions of the government in Vietnam published by New York Times Papers leaked by Daniel Ellsberg - for Department of Defense Analyst.

Détente is defined as the deliberate reduction of Cold War tensions.

Nixon, a long-time critic of Communism, couldn't openly recognize Mao Zedong and China.
-He met with Mao privately.
-Surprised the world by meeting with Mao in 1972 and beginning diplomatic exchanges.

Nixon pursued a policy called Vietnamization, which gradually withdrew US troops while providing South Vietnam with the financial and military aid needed to continue the war. In 1970, he expanded the war by invading Cambodia to eliminate Vietnamese Communist presence. After facing domestic backlash and the exposure of secret bombing raids, Nixon engaged in peace talks with North Vietnam, leading to the Paris Accords in 1973. This agreement allowed the US to withdraw its troops, although conflict between North and South Vietnam continued.

Iranian militants seizing the US embassy in Tehran and taking 50 Americans hostage symbolized a failed presidency. Carter tried numerous times to rescue the hostages, but they were all unsuccessful. Additionally, Carter tried

cause of persian gulf war was iraqs invasion of kuwait