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module 5: perception, action, and learning in infancy
pg. 156-172
including box 5.1, 5.2
pg. 174-181
pg. 182-191
pg. 156-172
4 month old
sees a lot of elements, some moving some not, different sizes and shapes
objects disappearing as they move behind other objects, placed in sink, but they never pass through others,
POINT IS
infants have to take in a shit ton of information and learn from it and its just a lot!!!
infants also explore through looking, listening, tasting, smellling and touching
REASONS TO FOCUS ON INFANCY
lots of rapid change happens in the 3 areas of perception, action and learning during first 2 years of life
development in these 3 areas are very intertwined!!
ex. as kid starts to crawl and walk (action) more of world is available to perceive (perception) and learn (learning)
THEMES OF THIS CHAPTER
active child (kid wants to explore environment)
continuity/discontinuity (which processes are gradual/abrupt in infant behaviour and subsequent developemnt)
mechanisms of change (learning + memory)
what is this theme again lol. question.
sociocultural context is considered, esp in terms of motor development
nature vs nurture (infants have less experience than older ppl, suggesting that we can differentiate between experience-independent and experience-dependent factors!!)
question: what are experience-independent and experience-dependent factors lol
PERCEPTION
william james
believed newborns world is a “big blooming, buzzing confusion”
but!! modern research tells us that infants come into world with ALL SENSORY SYSTEMS FUNCTIONING TO SOME DEGREE, and subsequent dev happens RAPIDLY
sensation
processing of basic info from external world by receps in sense organs (eyes, ears, skin…) and the brain
perception
process of organizing and interpreting sensory info about objects, events, and layout of world around us
VISION
newborns vision is lowkey shit at first, but it improves rapidly within first months
despite immature visual system THEY HAVE SOPHISTICATED VISUA ABILITIES
bcz they cant undersatnd or respond to instructions, to measure what kids now, we have multiple techniques
1 being the preferential-looking technique
2 diff stimuli shown side by side
if infant looks longer at one than the other, you can infer that 1. baby can differentiate between then 2. the baby prefers one over the other
found that babies looked at objects with a pattern of any sort over something that was plain
we now use eye trackers to detect where an infant is looking
another one being habituation
repeatedly giving an infant a particular stimulus until it gets used to it, in which case its response declines
once they get used to it, they itnrouce a new stimulus
if the infant dishabituates (and looks at the new one), we can say “omg it can differentiate btwn old and new stimuli!!”
VISUAL ACUITY AND COLOUR PERCEPTION
how sharply or clearly infants can see
preferential-looking method helps us ascertain this!!
in adults you do it with eye charts with letters and numbers (like the ones in optometrist’s offices!!) but u cant do that with infants lol
so rather, you take advantage of the fact that infants who can see the difference between a pattern and a solid block PREFER TO LOOK AT THE PATTERN
so young infants prefer to look at patterns of high visual contrast (ex. black and white, opposite ends of spectrum) bcz young infants have POOR CONTRAST SENSITIVITY (can only see a pattern when its made up of HIGHLY CONTRASTING ELEMENTS, again black and white. give them two slightly different shades of green, and they see no difference)
question: so how about different colours? that are similar in hue, or like in the same range of lightness/darkness. like green and blue, how can they distinguish?
so why do infants have such poor contrast sensitivity?
THEY HAVE IMMATURE CONE CELLS
cone cells are literally LIGHT-SENSITIVE NEURONS concentrated in the central region of hte retina (the fovea)
theyre involved in seeing fine detail and colour
newborns cones are spaced 4 TIMES FARTHER APART than adulth’s cones, so they only get about 2% of the light in the fovea (cause its right in the center lol if you’re that far apart ur not gonna get them all), compared to 65% for the adults
so infants at 1 month have 20/120 vision (meaning they can only read the E on an eye chart)
but by 8 months, it develops as much as adults!!!
for first month, they can’t perceive difference between white + colour
by 2 months, THEY CAN!! just like adults
they prefer colours that are unique cues (ex. blue vs green), rather than colours that combine hues (ex. blue-green)
TO WHAT EXTENT IS COLOUR PERCEPTION AFFECTED BY LANGUAGE?
so in a study, researchers used fNIRS (a non-invasive brain imaging technique that measures levels of oxygenated + deoxygenated blood in brain to measure brain activity) to find if 5 month olds categorize colours like adults do
findings were that infants brains responded to a change in colour a in category a to colour b in category b, but not colour a to colour b in category a
ex. (red and blue —> response to the change, red and light red —> no response to the change)… i think. question. verify.
so infants lowkey do have colour categories already before they even learn labels for them!!
VISUAL SCANNING
so newborns are super curious about moving stimuli but they can’t pay attention to them cause their eye movements are super jerky
they can only track slow-moving objects smoothly at 4 months of age
why 4 months? bcz now they have developed the use of SMOOTH PURSUIT EYE MOVEMENTS
this is when your gaze moves at the same SPEED and ANGLE as a moving object, keeping it perfectly in view
this is less a function of visual experience and more just a maturation thing (its just something that happens as your neural and perceptual systems mature with time)
ex. when given a siimple figure like a traingle, below 2 months only look at one corner, and with complex shapes like faces, tehy only look at outer edges, but by 2 months, they scan more broadly, letting them see overall shape (like before when scanning perimeters) AND inner details
at 4 months, infants primiarly look at eyes, but once they start babbling, they look at mouth telling us that a talking mouth may be related to the development of spoken language
bilinguial infants show this preference for mouth earlier than monolingual infants!!! which suggests that infants learning multiple languages take advantage of information from mouth earlier than kids only learning one language, with infants learning SIMILAR SOUNDING LANGAUGES payiungn EVEN MORE attention to mouth
OBJECT PERCEPTION
when people come closer to us or move farther away, or twist, changing in size and shape, we don’t think that the person themselves changes in size and shape. we perceive them to be constnat, which is PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY
perceptual constancy is evident early in life
study: newborns given 2 cubes a and b. b is twice as large as a. they put the large cube far enough away that it looked the same size as a, but they looked longer at the second one, showing that they actually did see the second cube as a different size than the first one
THIS TELLS US THAT NEWSBORNS HAVE PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY
object segregation
the perception of the boundaries between objects
ex. how can you tell where one object ends and another begins? like if theres a visible gap, we know, but if theres no gaps, if theyre touching, how do we know? like a cup on a saucer
ACC INFANTS USE MOTION AS A CUE TO SEPERATE OBJECTS
ex. in an experiment with a rod behind a block, with only the top and bottom of the block being visible, the 4 month olds viewed the rod as being whole instead of two broken bits when both parts moved in the same speed and direction, which means they shared a COMMON MOVEMENT
4 month olds who saw a stationary rods looked at both displays the same amt of time, shwoing that the dispay was hard to undrestand when there was no cue of motion
COMMON MOVEMENT
super poweful cue
even makes infants perceive completley different objects (that even vary in colour texture or shape) AS ATTACHED OBJECTS as long as theyre moving together
using common movement as a cue only emerges at 2 months of age
older infants use other sources for object segregation in addition to common movement, like knowledge of gravity!!
ex. gravity tells you that objects cant just float in midair, so even if theyre of differnet colour shape or texture, tehy have to be attached to another shape and therefore are a singular objects.
young infants at 4.5 months who arleady know the objects interpert the object like adults do, bcz they already know the objects speciifc physical properties!!!
all this to tell us that expeirence with specific objects helps infants understand their physical properties
the culture within which infants develop influences their attention to the visual world!!
western adults fixate on focal objects, east asian adults fixate on background contexts, which translate to what their children respectively look at
INFANTS FACE PERCEPTION
infants are drawn to facelike shapes from birth and possibly before
theyre attracted to things with more elements in uper half than lower half (like human faces!! with two eyes up and then one mouth down!!)
newborns quickly learn to recognize and prefer their own caregivers faces, looking at moms faces longer than other womans (even when they cant smell mom)
preference for faces of gender of caregiver tehy see most often
by end of first year, more focused on hands (bcz objects they’re working with) rather than faces
face perception is shaped by experience through a process called PERCEPTUAL NARROWING
which is when infants are better at discerning btwn kinds of faces they see a lot!!
ex. they become better at seeing faces from their own racial/ethnic group if they see those faces more than those who are from other ethnic groups
adults, 6mo, and 9mo can all tell difference btwn two human faces BUT ONLY 6MO OLDS CAN TELL THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 2 MONKEY FACES!!! cause they havne’t perceptually narrowed yet!! theyre still generalists isntead of specialists! (like general physicians vs specialists)
ORE (other-race effect)
the phenomenon of finding it easier to distinguish btwn faces of ppl in your own racial group vs faces of ppl in another racial group
ex. being able to differentiate white people’s faces readily but being like “oh asians all look the same”
this is just cause they see ppl from their own race more frequently
so question: if someone was raised in a family that was around ppl of different races all the time, would they be familiar distinguishing btwn all types of faces?
study showed that facial-scanning abilities of biracial infants are more mature that those of monoracial infants (SO I GUESS THIS ANSWERED MY QUESTION LOLAKDFLJASDF) (its cause they see facial features of two races in the home)
manipulating experience through picture book or videos that provide experience with other races can alter or reverse perceptual narrowing!!!!!!!!!!!!!! like when you watch kdramas and get into kpop and you can differentiate between korean faces better!!!!!!11
infants’ facial preferences is that they also prefer to look at faces that adults think are attractive!!!!!!! and infants acc act differently towards faces adults judge attractive vs unattractive
i wonder how kids like even know what faces adults judge to be attractive vs unattractive. like theyre infants, so maybe its not the words, but perhaps its the adults behaviour towards them? question.
kids with ASD show diff patterns of visual attention to faces than neurotypical individuals
with preference for non-faces being an early indication of ASD
autistic toddlers who strongly preferred geometric imgaes had poorer language, cognitive and social abilities than other autistic toddlers
possibly cause infants with less interest with faces interact with them less so they have less opportuniteis to learn about speech sounds and social cues which you learn about from interacting with faces
face perception develops beyond infancy, and sensitivity to differences in spacing of features continues to develop through childhood
OBJECT KNOWLEDGE
so object permanence, piaget based a lot on the belief that out of sight out of mind, but this has been disproven!! kids will reach for stuff even in the dark
violation-of-expectancy
a procedure to study infants object knowledge
basically, its that if infants see an event that is INCONSISTENT iwth what they know to be true of the world, theyll have a response to it bcz itll surprise or interest them
ex. something appears to be floating when it should fall, theyll look at it longer/will have a change in heart rate
studies that used violation-of-expectancy
studies investigating infants representations of non-visible objects
infants got used to sight of a solid screen rotating back and forth 180 degrees, but then they placed a box in the path (which is independent variable with control group and experimental group). control group saw that the screen stopped hwen it hit the box. experiemntal saw that screen passed through teh box.
clearly experimental was not supposed to happen, and they found that infants as young as 3.5 months stared longer cause wtf
criticism of this
that you need to have a “rich” view of infant knowledge about how they think about objects and how they reason to understand why theyre staring longer, and that there may be perceptual info in the visual displays that leads to what the infants look more at
DEPTH PERCEPTION
as benjamin interacts with world more, he uses a ton more cues to learn more about objects around him, like if he can pick that thing up, or if the car is going slow enough that he can start crossing the road
optical expansion
a depth perception cue!!!
that the visual image of an object increases in size as it comes toward us (ex. moving a pencil towards your nose, it gets bigger)
so when an image gets bigger symmetrically like that, we (hopefully) duck
you see infants can’t duck, but they will blink!!
if they blink too soon or too late, the thing will hit their eye!!!
the mechanisms required to blink:
visual + temporal processing
as young as 1 month, they will blink defensively, and delayed developmental pattern for preterm infants SUGGESTING BRAIN MATURATION IS CRUCIAL FOR DEVELOPMENT OF OPTICAL EXPANSION
we have 2 eyes!!!
this aids in our early development of depth perception
why? bcz since theres distance btwn our eyes, the retinal image of an object is never exsctly teh same for both eyes, so they send different signals to brain
this is called BINOCULAR DISPARITY
binocular —> think two eyes
disparity —> not the same
the closer to object, the greater the disparity between images, the farther away the smaller (which checks out cause if you hold your finger right in front of you adn close one eye at a time your finger is literally like 3 inches away each time)
stereopsis
this is the process through which the visual cortex computes the DEGREE OF DISPARITY bteween the differing neural signals, adn based on this WE GET THE PERCEPTION FO DEPTH!!!!!11
this form of depth perception starts at 4 months and is complete within a few weeks
DID YOU KNOW THAT STEROPSIS IS A CLASSIC EXAMPLE OF EXPERIENCE-EXPECTANT PLASTICITY???
why? because we expect that youll have both eyes work together to compute depth cues. its the natural outcome in brain maturation, BUTTT if you dont get the normal visual input the develop binocular vision, youll have difficulty making use of stereopsis and other binocular depth cues!!!!!!!!
like if youre blind in one eye, but somehow its restored, youll still have trouble using binocular cues cause you missed the sensitive period where you were supposed to learn how to use these cues
for children, its before 3 years of age, and if they dont get it fixed before this, they are at risk for lifelong challenges in binocular vision
6-7 MONTHS
now we’re fucking with monocular depth cues!!!!
these are just with one eye :)) not two eyes
monocular cues are also known as pictorial cues CAUSE THEY HELP CONVEYING DEPTH IN PICTURES!!
one is relative size, that infants reach towards which ever one is nearer than the other,
auditory perception
fetuses can hear well enough (in womb) to learn basic stuff about auditory environemtn ,like moms heartbeat, rhythmic patterns of native language
butttt the auditory PATHWAYS in the brain mature significanly over the first year, as well as the ear developing
auditory localization
the perception of the spatial location of a sound source
wjhen newborns hear a sound, they turn to it
to localize a sound, you rely on differences in sounds that come to both ears. whichever ear its louder at you turn to. toddlers are better at this than newobrns.
another reason infants may not be slay at this is that you have to integrate a lot of information together (what you hear, what you see and what you touch) and you have to make a mental map of how sounds are organized in physical space WHICH IS HARD!!
but infants are good at detecting patterns in what they hear, which moves us to music perception
infants have big ass heads which is why its hard for them to figure out which side the sound is coming from
noo!!!!!its small heads htey ahve teensy heads
MUSIC PERCEPTION
infants prefer infant-directed singingn (whcih is slower and high pitched) over adult-directed singing (this type of singing suggests more positive affect, like infant-directed speech)
music percpetion for infants is much like adults,
they like consonant intervals over dissonant ones (ex. p4 vs -7)
also found that infants pay more attentin to consonant versions of music than dissonant ones, even if their mom was deaf, suggesting this is innate
melodic perception
infants diverge from adult listeners
infants can acc make perceptual distinctions that adults cant!!!!
like infants can tell a note chnage within a key, but adults can only tell note changes that are pretty obviously outside the key
this is most likely a “we’ve heard music for so many years its hard to detect something that small”
doesnt necessarily mean infants are more musically attuned than adults
infants are more sensitive to aspects of music rhythmn than adults as well
study on how culture with complex rhytmns, culture with non complex rhythmns, infants from culture with nc rhythmsn able to detect changes in complex rhythmns, why? bcz
PERCEPTUAL NARROWING AGAIN
infants who have no expeirence with music can find differences in musical stimuli that adults cant BECAUSEEE EXPERIENCE FINE TUNES PERCEPTUAL SYSTEM!!!!!!!!! AND SO ADULTS JUST BECAME LESS SENSITIVE TO THAT, but infants havent narrowed yet!!! bcz they dont have all that experience yet
question: am i understanding perceptual narrowing right?
adult musicans better at proessing pitch and rhythmn in speech and music
so what came first, enhanced auditory processing o musical training?
well yk if ur good at it, you’re prolly gonna seek more training in it, but the musical training itself is whats enhancing your auditory perception. NEUROPLASTICITYYYYY
also did ya know that expeirence plays a role in developing musical abilities andddd its suggesting a potential relationship between early musical expeirence and development of language and literacy
TASTE AND SMELL
maternal diet influences
early exposure to bitter flavours increases likelihood of later preference for those flavours
evidene for sweet and salty flavours mixed
timing influences later preferences (ex. prenatal expousre to garlic increased ilke for largic at 8-9 months, but garlic in breast milk didnt have an effect0
preferences for smell present early on as well
plays a role in how you recognize your mothers (armpit study, preferred one with mothers scent more)
food neophobia
where children avoid unfamiliar foods
reactivity to food odours but not tastes predicted degree of neophobia
more strongly inflenced by smell than taste guys!!!!!!
TOUCH
oral explanation dominats for first few months
suck on that thumb, fingers, toes, objects, anything
texture, taste, feel, all those things
at 4 months, they have more contorl over hands and arms, so they use those more than their mouths
they rub, probe, bang objects, and depending on the object their approach varies. if it has a cool texture they will rub, and if its strong theyll bang it
also creating mental maps of their own bodies and how it feels to be touched in certain places and which places those are
brains of 7 mont olds process locations where others are touched using the same areas in their somatosensory cortex!!!!!!!!!
whatttttttttttWJHAKSDJFASD
INTERMODAL PERCEPTION
BOX 5.2: picture perception
even with absolutely no exposure to picutres, child able to identify ppl and objects in photos, and infants as young as 5 months can do this
but kids dont always know whats REAL, like they treat 2d images as real objects and even try to pick them up if they look liike real images (like a picture of a tree)
but they grasp at real objects more than pictured objects so we’re assuming they have at lesat some understanding of the distinction
by 19 months they seem to have learned that pictures are more symbolic and are different from real objects
the development of symbols comes later!! (ch. 6)
cross cultural study showed that understanding relationship between 2d and 3d objects requires experience with pictures!!!!!
also that 2d images that interact wtih infants are more readily undrestood to be real people than ininanimate ones (explored in chapter 7)
INTERMODAL PERCEPTION
so many events involve simulataneous stimulation through multiple sensory modalities
ex. shattering glass? visual and auditory stimulation
what INTERMODAL PERCEPTION is, is
we’re just combining info from like 2 or more sensory systems, so you can perceive the event as a coherent event
from early on, infants integrate info from different senses
if shown a pcitre of a pacifer they sucked and one they didnt, they will recognize the one they sucked meaning they were able to tell even tho they only explored thorugh oral exploration
infants prefer to attend to multisensory events that they see to be coming from a single object
ex. a rattling and colourful toy
4 month olds seem to pay more attention exactly what things are making the sounds and preferring videos that sync with whats acc happening (ex. sound happenign when person in video lands on impact, rather than sound happening randomly)
infants also draw abstract connections between sights and sounds, looking longer at displays where both dimensions are CONGRUENT (like a ball rising nad falling at the same rate as a whistle rising and falling in pitch)
WHATS THE PUPROSE OF INTERMODAL TASKS?
ewll they help us examine complex cross-modal associations
ex. associating your own-race and other-race faces with emotional cuees in music
finding that 3-6 months they didnt have a preference for a certain face hwen paired with appy or sad music BUT 9 mont olds looked longer at thier own race faces with happy music and other race faces for sad music
which tells us about early roots of social categories nad preferences!!!
MCGURK EFFECT
where you go “ba” over and over and over again, but the person speaking is saying GA. some will hear da, because its between ba and ga.
but for this illusion to work you have to integrate the auditory and visual info youre getting together
PERCEPTUAL NARROWING IN INTERMODAL PERCEPTION
young infants can acc detect correspondences (similarities or equivalences) in speech sounds and faical movemnts for SOUNDS NOT IN NATIVE LANGUAGE, but as you get older, you ca'n’t bcz experience fine-tunes the types of intermodal correspondences infants can detect
study in india
lots of blind ppl due to cataracts, once you can see again, can you match an dobject you felt via touch with object you saw? well after they regained sight, formely blind cant match visual shape with tactile shape BUTTTTTTTT AFTER 5 DAYS, THEY CAN!!!!
so experience is necessary to discover links between modalities
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
so motor development happens while a lot of crazy things are happening in weight mass height and muscular strenght, and motor achivements have effects on other develpment, like visual perception and social behaviour
REFLEXES
newborns start off with REFLEXES, some with adaptive value some with not
grasping
close fingers around anything that presses against palm of hand
rooting
when stroked on cheek, turn head in direct on touch and open mouth
this is for breast feeding
sucking
when oral contact with sucking
swallowing
following sucking
not fully automatic!! they happen more likely with states, like rooting more when hungry
tonic neck
no fucking clue why we do this
its when infants head turns to one side, the arm on that side extends while the arm on the other side flexes
why? again, no clue
most reflexes disappear on regular schedule, but stuff like coughing sneezing blinking and recoiling from pain remain through life
MOTOR MILESTONES
so lots of research has been done on WEIRD populations
western, educated, industralized, rich, democratic
but cultural differences have been investigated!!
ex. when sitting, 0% of 5mos in italy couldnt and 92% in cameroon could, and 17ish% in united states
so western children as yardstick is MISLEADING
why the didsparity?
well in some countries babies are plaed in places without much structural support, like ground in kenya nad adult furniture in cameroon
so they literally just start learning how to sit quicker
also in west africa, they beleive its important to exercise infants to promote physical and motor movement, so kids are moved around everywhere and learn to hold themselves up
the degree to which motor skilsl are encouraged varies culture to culture!!
in some cultures, they DISCOURSE moving! ex. china bcz of hygenic concerns, which makes it hard for them to devleop the muscle strength required to start walking!!!!!
in some cultures they really want you to start walking!!
ex. the west africa example i gave earlier
stretcing, bouncing, high positive affect from caregiver, suspension to make bod stronger
if movements are restricted, development would be less advanced unfortnately
MODERN VIEWS OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
arnold gesell and myrtle mcgraw concluded that infants motor development is goverend by brain maturation (super super early view)
current theorists say that early motor developmenet comes from a bunch of factors like neural mechanisms, increases in infants strenght, posture contorl, balance, perceptual skills, changes in body propoertions and motivations
LIKE JUST A LOT OF FACTORS THAT LEAD TO MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
AFFORDANCES
these are the possibilities for the action offered or afforded by objects and istuaitons
for ex. small bojects can be afforded to be picked up!!!! the ground can afford to be walked upon
infats learn about these affordances (exactly what can we afford to be doing) by just exploring!
MOTIVATION IS A BIG ONE
the kids need to see more of the external world nad want to expeirnece more of it
like for walking, motivation is they can get around more efficiently than by walking
infants who are better able to interact with enviroment may have an advantages in perceptual and cognitve dvelpment by being better able to seek out new opportunities for learning
like if they can move arround, reach for things, then tehy can see more things and learn more about the world which aids in their perceptual and cognitive development!!
REACHING
once infants cna reach for things, they can take a more active role in their learning
this requires a lot of things to work together
muscle development (of arm muscles)
postural control
development of various perceptal and motor skills
pre-reaching movements
swiping in general vicinity of objects
3-4 months, succesfully reaching but jerky and poorly controlled
manual exploration of objects made possible of velcro patched mittens and toys MADE INFANTS MORE INTERESTED IN BOJECTS, and they were able to reach for them independently EARLIER!!!
those who had sticky mittens showed more sophisticated patterns of object exploration than those who didnt
7 months, able to stabley sitting and reach smoothly
with this they can capture more objects, increasing sphere of action, ALSO EFFECTS ON VISUAL PERCEPTION as they can view 3d objects entirely now that they can sit and reach better :))
so they get better at completing 3d objects, visualizing that
question: is this about visualizing 3d objects, or is it about, like in head? visuospatial as well im assuming? but the focus here is that they get better at it because their motor development has gotten advanced enough that they can itneract with objects more and in more in depth ways
great deal of interaction between visual development and motor development
you can also use other sensory info (like sound) when you dont have vision to succeed at motor tasks
reaching behaviour interacts with infants growing understanding of world, and it has a social component, as infants perceive adults as able to help them accomplish goals they cant on their own (so they reach more around an adult than alone so adult can help them get the thing)
SELF-LOCOMOTION
moving around the environment on their own
if you’re moving around, you see faces less cause you just cant no matter who much you crane your neck, possible reason why younger infants look at faces more than older infants do
first instance of this
crawling (belly crawling, inchworm belly flop)
then hands to knees crawling
11-12 month, first start walking, lower center of gravity, hands in air for balance, both feet on ground mostly (rather than the heel to toe motion of adul
weak muscles, so their balance lowkey sucks, but with practice comes proficiency!! (number of days of learning predits proficiency)
infants adjust the mode of locomotion (walking or crawling) based on their perception of the properties of the surfaces they want to cross
scale errors
challenges in integrating perceptual information with motor behaviour
ITS SO FUNNY DUDE
so basically theyll try to do something with a miniature replica object THATS WAY TOO SMALL FOR THE ACTION
like trying to get on a super teeny toy slide, or a super teeny chair
why? cause theyre not taking into account the mismatched between body size and object size
grasp errors
when child tries to pick up an object from a 2d representation (ex. trying to pick up a glass of water from a picture of it)
media errors
when a child using interactive tech tries to pass or receive an object through a screen
so i need an example of this one. question.
BOX 5.3: the case of the disappearing reflex
stepping reflex: if you hold a kid under arms with the feet touching a surface, baby will reflexibvely step like theyre walking
this disappears at about 2months
it was long assumed this was due to cortical maturation
buttt kids who practiced it more had to reflex for longer than 2 months, and 7 month odl who never had the reflex acc stepoed'
they found it stopped bcz babies just got heavier so it took more effort to lift leg
mystery solved!!
LEARNING AND MEMORY
HABITUATION
basically getting used to it
baby has seen it already, so they respond less to it than if it was a new thing
the presence of habituation reveals that learning has taken place, the baby has formed a memory of this, and now its familiar
super adaptive!! if everything is alwyas new to you all the time its just super overwhelming!! if you get used to certain things, you can focus on what is new
the speech by which an infant habituates is believed to reflect the general efficiency of infant’s porocessing of information
ex. related measures of attention, like how long they looked, also say something about how fast the baby is processing something
quesiton: not sure what degree of novelty preference means
infants who habituate relatively rapidly tend to have higher IQs
STATISTICAL LEARNING
learning that involves detecting statistical patterns
so in life, a bunch of things happen a lot, and crtain things happen in a predictable order and occur at the same time as other things
ex. regularity of which moms face comes with her voice
infants are highly sensitive to the regularity of which one event follows the other
ex. 2 to 8 month olds were habituated to 6 simple visual shapes presented one after other with specifed levels of probability, and the order of appearance of one or more of the shapes. they looked longer when this order changed, suggesting that they learned the original order enough to be like “what you switched it up)
newborns even track statistical regularities in domains of music, action and speech suggesting that its innate!!!
infants prefer some patterns over others, like they like ones that have some variability instead of being perfectly predictable or very complex
goldilocks effect!!
sugests that infants preferentially attend to patterns that are most informative given learning abilities
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
discovered by pavlov, the dog dude, dog salivating
young babies’ mealtimes, occur frequently and have a predictable structure
classical conditioning there with lke a bottle coming to mouth, so theyre conditioned to feel what they do when tehy get that tast, might start sucking when they see a breast
unconditioned stimulus: nipple, unconditioned response: sucking, conditioned stimulus: breast, conditioned response: sucking (anticipatory when they see the breast)
even sleeping newborns learn a response where they use a tone paired with a puff of air to elict an eye blink, suggesting that classical conditioning is a potent form of learning early in postnatal life
INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING
learning to discover consequences of one’s own behaviour!!
infants learn that shaking a rattle makes a cool sound, cooing at parents makes them coo back…
instrumental conditioning is the same thing as operant conditioning!!
this is the one wtih pos/neg reinforcement + pos/neg punishment
contingency relation between behavioru and reward. if infant performs target behaviour THEN infant receives reinforcement. reinforcement is CONTINGENT on the performance of the behvaiour
pos reinforcement —> adding something to increase behaviour happening again
neg reinforcement —> taking away something to increase behaviour happening again
pos punishment —> adding something to reduce behaviour happening again
neg punishment —> taking away someting to redufce behaviour happening again
infants have an intense motivation to explore and master development, but tehy also learn there are some situations they have no control over,
infants of depressed mothers tend to smile less bcz smiles arent consistently rewarded by parent
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING/IMITATION
adult model repeatedly sticking out tongue, newborn will do the same
but critiques here, calling possibility of newborn imitation into question
by the second half of the first year, infants imitate more complex actions
in one study, infants observed experimenter performing unusual behaviours with objects, and when later presented iwth the same objects, infants as young as 6-9 months imitated some of those actionse ven after 24 hours, (and 14 months a full week after fist seeing htem)
tells us imitaiton is important in cultural trnasmission
imitation is also based on analysis fo person’s intentions rather than exactly what they did (ex. if they would use their arm to grab something but they used theri foot, baby would use hand)
infants try to reproduce behaviour and intentions of only other people, ot inanimate objects!
infants also pay attention to the credibility of the person (if bro is happy looking inside an empty container, theyll go “is this dude crazy” and wouldn’t imitate their behaviour cause they dont have ethos)
MIRROR NEURONS
SO COOL!!!!!!
basically they monitored brain activity of a monkey adn noticed that when lab assistant raised ice cream cone to mouth, the neurons in premotor cortex began firing!!!!! AS IF THE MONEKY ITSELF WAS GONNA EAT THE ICE CREAM CONE!!!!
also eeg studies where monkeys see adult humans making facial gestures shows a pattern of brain activation that is characteristic of the mirror neuron system
this is called the mu rhythmn, and its in connection wtih moitor performance
not relevant to whta we’re studying btw but curious
the degree to which the mirror neuron system is present in infants is unclear, patterns of infant brain activity is consistent with hypothesis that mirror neurons are present
7 month olds who brains showed greater mu rhythmn when seeing someone do a goal-directed action were more likely to reproduce that action, but we dont know much about how early tehse brain pattenrs come in at development
observational eanring is also applicable to more abstract concepts, like grit
ex. experimenter two scenarios, one struggling to complete the task, other completly quickly and falawlessly. infants given difficult task, those who saw the experimenter who persevered tried harder and logner to acheive goal than those who didnt
so if you observe persistence you’re more likely to persevere yourself (i mean tbh ur so right cause seeing the dude in greatest estate developer do his thing even tho its clearly hard is super motivational)
RATIONAL LEARNING
we all have beliefs about world, we adjust expectations based on new info we received
rational learning is when learner integrates prior beliefs and biases with what acc happens in environment
ex. you get mexican food at a chinese restaurant, so you go “oh damn okay i guess its not just a chinese restaurant”
violation-of-expectation paradigms
where you literally surprise an infant with unexpected outcomes
ex. box of 75 balls, 70 red, 5 white, draw 5 balls. infants looked longer when you pull out more white than red, cause it should be more likely to pull out red balls
question: is this also statistical learning? or is that different cause you’re more so going “this happens with this often”, but we are using statistics here. question, should get on a call.
infants showed no surprise when balls did not come from box bcz thats a completely different sample theyre picking from that the infant doesnt know wehre those balls came from
similar findings show that infants generate inferences abt future based on prior data, and use new expeirences to adjust incorrect inferences
but then yk when we get to social psych we learn things like, haha hehe confirmation bias maybe we don’t always do that
ex. broken toy, but they saw ppl use the toy alright right before, so they were like “oh shit, am i the problem” and they give it to a parent to fix
if its the toys problem, they went to new toys, if its a them problem, they asked for help
ACTIVE LEARNING
infants learn by acting on the world!!
we learn more when we’re actively engaged than when we’re like passively reading something and not really absorbing the information
infants learned more about the object when tehy chose it themselves!! cause they were more engaged!!
children learned more about object locations when requried to actively engaged wtih a touch screen than just passively observing it
infants learned more about sound-object pairs when objects did unexpected things, perhaps as when something violates physical laws, infants want to seek out explanations for what occured
theyre just tryna undresatnd whats happening
the various forms of learning discussed so far learn together!!
ex. inant kicking to operate a mobile iin instrumental-conditioning IS ACTIVE LEARNING!! CAUSE THEYRE KICKING, THEYRE TRYNA FIGURE OUT HOW IT WORKS ACTIVELY!! THEYRE ENGAGING IWTH THE CONCEPTS!!
ex. rational learning, depends on the infants ability to track stats about environment
THEY GAVE THE PING PONG EXAMPLE AS A PART OF RATIONAL LEARNING
wait yeah my question stands, is is this statisical learning? well ig they said it depends on infants ability to track statistics about their environment.
basically infants being able to integrate multiple types of learning is why theyre so slay!!
MEMORY
data suggests that infants retain information over weeks and months depending on age (wehn its operantly conditioned), and long-term memory strenghtens with age
change-detection task, relies on same logic as preferential-looking studies
so basically, infant looks at 2 screens at the same time, one display is the same image, the other introduces a change. if they see the change, they look at that screen more.
by manipulating the type of change and the amount of time between repetitions its possible to see what the ifnants encode
ex. 6 months only detect chagnes in a single items colour or location but 12 month olds can put up to 4 items in wroking memory!!
infants tend to reach for desirable objects even wehn tehy are hidden, so experiments placed diff numbers of crakcers in two buckets
a study used this, and found that infants chose bucket holding larger number of crackers (as long as the number was below 4), and infants made selections based on diff in cracker volume as well
this provides evidence that infants retained the contents of the containers in working memory, at least for small numbers of objects
TEST YOURSELF
c
a
a
c
d
young infants have smaller heads, makes it harder for them to perceive whether a sound is closer to one ear or the other (which is a possible explanation for why young infants tend to have more trouble with auditory localizations than older infants and children)
c?
yesss its c
tendency for infant to look longer at a smiling face paired with happy voice is indication of intermodal perception, bcz they are integrating both visual and auditory information
c
d
a
c
c
b
a
b
a
100% LETS GOOOOOOOOO
BOXES I MISSED:
BOX 5.4 —> “Gangway - I’m coming down”
can infants perceive depth?
research linking depth perception, locomotion, cognitive abilities, emotion and social context of development
gibson and walk used the “visual cliff”
cliff itself is a thick sheet of plexiglas, a checked pattern under the glass on one side makes it look like a safe surface, but on other side, the pattern is FAR BENEAT GLASS
contrast should make it look like theres a cliff
children were unwilling to venture over the precipice, strong evidence that they undrstood the significane of the depth cue of relative size (cause the plexiglass is there, liek its safe to go thorugh, but because the sizes of the boxes are differnt, it looks like theres a cliff)
in first 8.5 months of age, they would just go down shallow slopes, and when it was steeper, THEY LAUNCHED THEMSELVES HEADFIRST ANYWAYS LOL
infants learned to use both visual and tactile information to determine when it was safe to climb a steep slope or cross a narrow bridge
when babies havent accurately juded that its too steep for their experience, an adult picks them up lol
or they will tumble
its quite funny
lecture notes:
lecture 5A:
children cant respond to you, so you need to be creative
one way we do this is through the preferential looking paradigmn
to see what infants are paying attention to
so you give them 2 objects/things to look at, one to the left, one to the right, and you measure how long they look at each item
if they look longer at one, you can draw some conclusions
what conclusions can we draw off preferntial looking diagrams?
they can tell the difference between two items
ex. poor contrast sensitivity, line of black and white lines, do they see it as a gray blur or can they distinguish? if they spent a longer time looking at the black and white lines, and we know that babies like looking at more complex things than simple things already, we go “oh okay so their eyesight is good enough that they can see the differences”
they might have a preference for one thing over the other!
whatever they look at for longer, they have a preference is what we think is happening
these are assumptions though, cause we can’t be entirrrr. rely sure, but we can be sorta sure!!
and one of the critiques is that we need to have a rich undersatnding of their inner life acc to know if this is right
nowwwwwwwww we’re gonna look at this thing called the habituation paradigm, which has 2 main stages: habituation + dishabituation
what are habituation and dishabituation?
a decrease in response to repeated or continued stimulation
its literally you’re just used to it with time
imagine a fridge making noise and when you walk into the room you go “whoa wtf what is that” but after like 5 minutes you don’t even otice it anymore
until it like makes a “skrrrr” sound where you go ‘WHAT THE FUCK WHATS GOING ON”
bcz you got habituated to it, then you got dishabituated with the new process
examples of kids oin labs
first start showing htem sea creatures and theyre playing close attention, FOR A LONG TIME, but more and more, they get bored cause theyre all sea creature, but if you show them an elephant they go WHOA. THATS NOT A SEA CREATURE!!
this tells us that they have formed categories of types of animals!!
basically if they perceive a difference, theyll have a renewed interest and start looking at the screen again
same thing for distinguishing btwn a shit ton of shades of green and red, to show cateogries btwn colours, or two shades of green, to see if they can tell the difference between shades
LECTURE 5B
Vision in Early Infancy
sensation —> detection ad processing of basic info from the external world
retina to thalamus to occipital lobe, processing of visual information from the external world
perception —> how we organize, interpet, make sense of incoming information
how we use information to make up our subjective experience
sensation —> simple, mechanical. perception —> your own mental reps of the world
sensation —> processing individual features of a tree and integrating the senses to put into my brain, perception —> going “oh its a tree”
think of the fridge example, wehre its being noisy. the fridge noise is still taken in your ears which is sensation but you perceive it to not really be there, which is perception
vision!!
very bad in infants at first with 20/120 (can only read the E on the optometrist chart)
bcz their cone cells only catch 2% of light, which is v small, but by 8 months its the same as adults
children have low visual acuity as infnats (bcz cones not getting much), so they see things a lot fuzzier
infants also have poor contrast sensitivity
they have a hard time detecting the subtle differences in light and dark areas in a visual apttern
ex. we see a light area and a dark area, they just see a whole ass blur
not much evidence of colour perception as of first month
visual stge isnt devleoped enough to tell diff bteween colours (again, not enough devleoped cones, theyre there, but they are immature until 8 months of age)
buuuuuuuut by TWO months, colour vision is identical to adults!!
so by 2 months, they can see all the colours but its still very blurry until 8 months… (?)
so acc kids have all the rods and cones in their eyes at place, but they cant differnetiate btwn colours until 5 months
ex. adults have green vs blue, knowing there are shades btwn but those are the two overall cateogires
but for kids, you show them one shade of blue and second shade of blue, they react like its a new stimuli, so we assume “oh they think its a whole other colour, a new thing entirely, in a different cateogry”
so by 2 months they can see all the colours, by 5 months they start putting them into different categories, and by 8 months they have foveal vision equivalent to those of adults
we figured this out using fNIRS equipment, which allows researchers to record changes in brain activity in response to changes in the colours they show the baby!!!
brain detects changes in how info is processing in the visual cortex
functioanl near infrared spectrosocpy, measures levels of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin by measuring refracted naer infrared light that is directed into the brain
theyre literally shining light straight into the brain???????
visual scanning
infants can’t smoothly track moving stimuli until 4 months (smooth eye pursuits)
buuut if you look at preterm babies, they develop scanning ability muuch later after birth than full term babies, telling us its a neurological development thing (bcz they didnt cook enough in the womb)
so literally jsut in a few months, their visual system gets crazy advanced!!
at the beginning, they lok at edges and contours
like image of a face, tehy look at chin, then to head, mostly countours, becuase they dont have great contrast sensitivity
contrasts in the faces are too subtle
as visual system developed, they can look at finer details
30 days later, at literally just 2 months, they look from one eye to another, to the mouth, to the nose
infants like looking at complex things!! so now that they can, they look at finer details than sipler things
1 month olds, shown a thick circle outline or a basic smiley face, they looked at the outline for longer cause higher contrast
but for two month old, theyd prefer the smiley face!! casue its more interesting :)))
visual control allows infants to control what they’re paying attention to, and what they’re paying attention to affects what they can learn!!!!
LECTURE 5C: FACE PERCEPTION
infants spend most of thier time looking at faces at first, but by 1 they look at other things more that theyre interested in learning about, and they also have more deveoped visual control skills to control what they’re attending to in their surroudnings
infants are drawn to top-heavy things than bottom-heavy things, just anthing that resembles a face
perceptual narrowing
show an adult two moneky faces, they wont be sure if its the same moneky or not. an infant will be able to tell the diff tho, cause its a genrealist. as it gets older, itll specialize in human faces, and find it harder to tell the difference between two monkeys
same thing happens with differences in sounds that aren’t linguistically meaningful in the main language of the infant, with bilingual children studies in there showing dfifferent things
other race effect
type of perceptual narrowing
if youre alays around ppl of the same race, youre gonna get good at distingusiing btwn ppl of that race, but not at people of a dfiferent race, cause they have facial features that are just different enough to you adn close enough between themselves to be able to tell
ex. not able to tell diff btwn two kpop singers, but the more you watch htem, you can tell the difference
now this is at SIX MONTHS (6 MONTHS) that they can differentiate btwn moneky faces, so they are not perceptually differentiated at this time
LECTURE 5B: OBJECT AND DEPTH PERCEPTION
perceptual constancy: objects are constnat in size, shape, colour regardless of the retinal image of them
ex. driving down a road, you see trees get smaller as you pass them and closer as you get to them. you don’t think they’re ACTUALLY changing size, you know that they look smaller in your eye because of distance
newborns know this!!
study where two blocks were shown at different distances, but they were both the same size in the retinal image, but newborns were like “nope the block thats far away, that must be wayy more massive cause its far away and its the same size”
newborns know this! which tells us its not an experience-dependent thing. its INNATE.
common movement
used to determine if an object is a whole or multple objects or not. it depends on if they move together or seperately. if you see them moving together, you go “oh its a whole cylinder, with something blocking the center of it”. if you see them moving at different speeds, or directions, you assume they’re seperate objects, and you just can’t see the seperation due to a strip blocking it.
but! newborns don’t know this but 4 month olds do. which tells us this is experience-dependent
you need experence in hte wrold to figure out common movemnet helps us know if something is together ot not
newborns use other cues like gravity too to figure out if something is one object or two objects!! (along with common movment, so they use other cues to figure out object segregation)
ex. if two things are stuck together in a way that looks like if one thing moves, the other should fall, rather than moving with it, they will appear surprised when it moves with them instead of falling
four month olds perform similiar to 8 month olds to these tests on object segregation (on using other cues like gravity to figure out if theyre the same or not),but ONLY if they get to play with the objects before hand to ascertain the objects specific physical properties
depth cues
we have binocular and monocular cues
first, lets talk optical expansion
optical expnasion is just when an object gets bigger when it gets closer to you, and its a cue infants use to figure out if a thing is coming closer to their eyes or not. these are for one month olds!!!
at 4 months, they can tell the difference btwn images of an object in each eye to calculate depth (binocular cues)
but we also use monocular ones, like relative size of an object (banana being far away or close, dont need two eyes for that, we’re just looking at how far or close it is)
tetxure gradient: if you can see the fine details, its prolly really close. if its more a blur its prolly farther away.
at 7 months, they use monocular cues!!!!
at 4 months, binocular cues for depth perception
at 7 months, monocular cues (you would think its the other way around!! but no, we use binocular cues before monocular cues!!)
5C. AUDITORY AND INTERMODAL PERCEPTION
auditory perception
auditory localization: trying to figure out where a sound came from
newborns turn head to what side sound is coming from. but thats only as far as it goes after birth. they can’t determine things beyond simly left or right. why?
well adults, use info from both ears. because they both come to the ears at sliiighly differnet times, so we can use that discrepency to locate the sound
the discrepency is called binaural disparity
when you are a newborn and you have a small head, its hard to do this cause everytihigns to slcose!!!!
also!! you need intermodal perception: integrating info from two difernet senses, and babies can’t do this yet and create a spatail map in their head
music perceptin
how we sutdy music perception in infants:
light near a speaker so newborn pays attention. once youve got attention, you play music. then you meaure how long they spent looking at source of music before turning away. with the assumption that the longer they looked, the more they liked it
findings
babies like consonant sounds over dissonant sounds (ex. p4 more pleasant than -7). same as adulthood!! consonance seems to be innate and not learned (kids wth deaf parents still like consonance), monkeys have same preference
preference for infant-directed singing (lots of positive emotins, gentle tones, smiles, positive visual stimuli)
infnats are better at detecting within-key changes than adults!! adults and infants knwo when somethings off-key but infants are good at differentiating between when somethings in the same key, but its a different note. they would slay interval practices.
this may not be cause theyre just good at it better than adults, but it may be cause adults are used to things all being in the same key, its pretty similar, but babies dont have as much expeirnece, so everything new is a big thing!!
which is perceptual narrowing
intermodal perception
combining sensory info from muultiple modalities into one perceptual experience
by 4 months, infants can integrate visual and auditory info
1 study
4 month olds, put in front of two tvs. one screen: hitting piece of wood with a stick, second screen: someone playing peekaboo
videos played side by side, one audio track
if they herad peekaboo, theyd look at that one. if they heard audio of hitting a stic, theyd pay attention to that one
they’re combining what theyer seeing an whta tehy’re hearing!!! at 4 months!!! evidence of intermodal perceptin!!
other study
oscillating whistle, with a visual, if visual going up and down matches the whistle pitch goig up nad tdown, they go “ahh we integrate, these must match”
they did hte same thing, 2 videos, whatever matched better they looked at that one
Mcgurk effect
person is saying “da, da, da”
but video shows them saying “ba, ba, ba”,
infants were hearing ba (as seen through a habituation paradig), bcz they perceived ba, and so htey got used to ba instead of da!!
5D: Motor Development
milestones in motor development
tonic neck reflex
when head in one direction, arm and leg on that side should be extended, arm and leg on opposite side should be flexed
lots of psych reserarch is on WEIRD Populations!! western, education, industrialized, rich, democratic
if you’re only studying north americans, some stuff is just not gonna generalize across the globe!!!
ex. in mali, we have a lot of exercise routines to stretch out the baby. a child rearing practice that 1 month olds in america dont do!
in america, 17% of 5 month olds can sit up on their own. in italy its 0%, but in cameroon, its 92%!!
so USA literlaly cannot be a baseline, when everythigns so varied
aslo the usage of kiddy chairs may delay musculature development needed to sit up, but kids in cameroon dont use kiddy chairs so they have to sit up earlier
using WERD populations means we get data that isn’t universal
biggest thing about motor dev isnt just learning to use body, but integrating perception and what you wanna do
ex. visual cliff
checkered surface, uses checkered surface to figure out if theres a drop off ior cliff, but there is a peice of glass, so they can go over safely, but will they or not is the questions
at 8 months, crawl right over. plop.
after a few weeks, more hesitant about it.
once they started walking, they start falling off ledge again!!
why? bcz theyre stil integrating what tey see in the world and what they do. they can’t integrate crawling behavour with the wrold, so they fall right over. with experience, they become better at gauging it, and then with walking, wehn tehyre beginning its hard for them to integrate perceptions with actions, but once theyre experienced walkers, theyre good again
can’t be a fear of heights cause it should stay constant regardless of crawling or walking.
key thing: when learning a new motor behaviour, it took time and expeirence to integrate perceptions and behaviours
5E:
statistical learning
statistical leraning
process of detecting and learning from statistical patternsin enviornment, which areee
how often do certain events occur?
what type of events occur together?
what event is likely to occur right after?
if one thing happens, whats prolly gonna hpapen right after?
a lot of probability stuff, lots of ‘whats likely to happen with this/if this happens/if this doesnt happen”
this happens super innate! no need to be taught, they just do it
the driving forces behind these are evolutionary. instinctive learning patterns we’ve evolved
sat infnats in frot of screne, showed them a certain pattern
whenver a black square, always a black and white cross next. gray square —> black and white diamond. so theres shape pairings that alwyas came, and ones that were more variable, some constnat pairings some less-frequent
2 month olds, AND 5 MONTH OLDS, AAAND 8 MONTH OLDS wehn they say a new pairing they would look longer, trying to figure out the probability. when you do something that violates a pattern (like eveyrtime after black you get red, but this time you get green, they go “wtf” and stare)
so this statistical learning, it begins literlaly at 2 months, like we know it from then!!
think the sequence of sounds:
bidaku, padoti, golabu, bidaku
bida and daku ALWYAS grouped and tehy realized this
infants listened longer to syllables that don’t alwyas occur together, then the familiar ones cause theyre habituated to those
so this is identifying a statistical irregularity!!!
& for literally only 2 minutes, tehy hear all this, figure out what occurs together and what doesn’t, and then distinguish which ones are locked in and which ones are on the rocks
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
imitation defnitely happens after 6 months, not sure about before.
when you show a 6-9 month old an action, or how to interact with something, they IMITATE IT. even after 24 hour delay.
at 14 months, they can do it with a week long delay. so
IMITATION COMES NTURALLY
study. two conditions. 1: wearinb blacnket cause cold, pressed button with forehead. 2: wearing blanekt, tnohing about being cold, arms were free, laid htem on table, pushed with head.
in first contion, hands occupied, so kid pressed with hand cause thats what the adult most likely itnended to do, their hands were just busy
but second, hands wree free, so they were like “okay must have a reason to use forehead, lets use forehead”
so tehyre thinking about reasoning!!
chimpanzees also imitatie rationally!!
another study:
18 months, (previously this was at 6-14 months i think)
18 months now
given block to interact witih, saw a person failing to pull block off, so they imitated the thing the person was trying to engage in
wehn shown same action by machine, they dont try to pull off bloc, cause theyre not assigning intention to machine
shows that infants consider the intention of the actor they’re observing!!
where does imitation come from?
MIRROR NEUROSN!!!!!!!!1
EMPATHY NEURONS ACIVATED WHEN WE SEE SOMEONE DOING SOMETHING AND WE DO IT OURSELVES AS WELL
we think it dvelops in infancy, but we dont know!! massive topic in neuroscientific research :))
RATIONAL LEARNING
what is it?
ability to use prior expeirencs to predict what will occur in the future
violation-of-expectancy procedure
show infants diff outcomes to an event, measure looking times. if surprised, theyll look longer.
box of ping pong balls. lets say 90% red, 10% white.
8 month old watched as blindfolded adult pulled balls out
when mostly red not white, theyre like “cool yeah thought so”
when mostly white balls instead of red they were like “whaaaaaaaat that makes no sense”
this tells us theyre able to figure out whats likely vs unlikely!!!!!!
when revealed expeirmenter was pullin balls out of pocket, they werent srurpised caus etehy were like ‘Oh theres a sample we didnt take into account”
when experimenter goes “oh its stuck” and mostly white come out they go “oh okay thers another thing messing the data up so mostly white came out, which was unexpected, gotcha”
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