Affect Contagion, Positive Emotions, and Affect in Families - Notes

Affect Contagion, Positive Emotions, and Affect in Families

Learning Outcomes

• Part 1

  • What is affect contagion?

  • How do researchers utilize the autonomic nervous system to assess emotions?

  • What is affect contagion theory, and what are its primary assumptions?

  • What does the Waters et al. (2014) study tell us about the nature of emotion and physiology?

• Part 2

  • How do positive emotions influence our cognition and behavior?

  • What is the broaden and build theory of positive emotions?

  • Why does the transition to parenthood matter?

  • What methods did Don et al. (2022) use?

  • What does the Don et al (2022) study tell us about positive emotions and adjustment to the transition to parenthood?

• Part 3

  • What is emotional security theory, and what does it say about interparental conflict and children?

  • What are the primary assumptions of interparental positivity spillover theory (IPST)?

  • According to IPST, how do positive interparental interactions beneficially influence children?

Affect Contagion

• Affect contagion theory: emotions can spread from one person to another.

  • Often automatic and unconscious.

  • Occurs through mimicry and mirroring.

  • Biological processes are often implicated as well.

Physiological Methods in Emotion Research

• Measuring bodily responses to understand affective (and potentially motivational) experience.

• Some prominent examples include:

  • Neuroimaging.

  • Autonomic nervous system activity.

  • Neuroendocrine system function.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

• The autonomic nervous system is a control system that unconsciously influences the function of involuntary bodily processes like respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion.

• Consists of a network of nerves.

  • Some extend directly from the brain, others extend out from the spinal cord.

ANS and Psychology

• Researchers have frequently examined ANS functioning in relation to psychological experiences.

• Represents a nonconscious, bodily assessment that isn’t prone to self-report biases.

• Sympathetic nervous system: activated during times of threat and stress.

• Parasympathetic nervous system: activated during times of social engagement and connection.

Waters et al (2014) Study

• Examining affect contagion between mothers (M = 33 yrs) and infants (12-14 months old).

• Mothers and infants are separated.

• In a separate room, mothers randomly assigned to:

  • Stressful social evaluation task OR non-stressful control task.

• Mothers and children then reunited.

• ANS activity tracked the whole time.

Waters et al (2014) Findings

• In the stressful condition, mothers experience an increase in SNS activity.

• Upon being reunited, infants’ SNS activity changes to match their mothers.

  • Physiological covariation: Infants “catch” their mothers stress without exposure to the stressor itself.

Positive Emotions

• Research suggests negative emotions tend to narrow the focus of awareness and attention.

  • Self-focus, protective lens.

• Positive emotions: broaden the scope of attention, widen range of behavioral possibilities.

Broaden-and-Build Theory

• Broaden-and-Build Theory (Fredrickson, 2013): positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and encourage perspective-taking.

• This builds critical resources, like social and physical resources.

Transition to Parenthood

• The birth of a new child is associated with a host of changes and challenges:

  • Sleep loss.

  • Child care and co-parenting.

  • Housework and work/home balance.

Healthy Adjustment During Transition

• Mitigating challenges is critically important.

• The typical approach: focus on stress management, conflict, and balance of duties.

• Positive emotions could be central to new parents maintaining healthy relationships.

Don et al., (2022) Study

• Hypothesis: new parents’ positive emotions would longitudinally predict enhanced individual and partner relational outcomes.

  • Positive Emotions (Time 1) -> Relational Outcome (Time 2)

  • Relational Outcome (Time 1) -> Relational Outcome (Time 2)

  • Relationship satisfaction.

  • Perceived support.

  • Observed support behavior.

Data Collaboration

• Two dyadic, longitudinal studies of new parents.

  • Study 1: 1 year, 4 waves of data, 104 couples.

    • Collected in Northeast Ohio.

    • Mean age = 29.02 years old (SD = 4.41).

  • Study 2: 2 years, 5 waves of data, 192 couples.

    • Collected in College Station, Texas.

    • Mean age = 28.4 years old (SD = 4.42).

Method

• Prenatal Period (1 survey).

• Postpartum Period (3 or 4 surveys).

• Self-report variables (both studies):

  • Positive Emotions, Relationship Satisfaction, Perceptions of Support

• Behavioral variables (Study 2 only, 6-months postpartum):

  • Observed support behavior

Laboratory-Based Interactions and Behavioral Coding

• Study 2: Standardized, in-lab, support interaction task

• 10-minute video-recorded discussions coded for key behaviors of interest.

• 8 coders carefully trained (Pasch & Bradbury, 1998).

• Reliability and accuracy monitored and tracked (ICC = .92).

Paradigm

• Semi-objective lens into relationship interactions that represents the gold-standard.

  • Instead of asking about behavior, observing behavior.

• Correlates with perceptions, daily experiences, and health outcomes.

Results

• Relationship Satisfaction – Studies 1 and 2

  • Positive Emotions (Prior Wave) -> Relationship Satisfaction (Subsequent Wave)

  • Relationship Satisfaction (Prior Wave) -> Relationship Satisfaction (Subsequent Wave)

  • Fathers only in Study 1. Both mothers and fathers in Study 2.

  • Similar findings for other variables.

  • Pattern of results across two studies.

Discussion

• Positive emotions promote relationship wellness, even during this challenging time.

• Positive emotions especially helpful for fathers.

  • Self-efficacy theory interpretation.

  • Or…mothers take most of the burden.

Discussion 2

• Important note about these samples.

• Affective ideals, views about positivity can differ based on culture.

• Transition to parenthood has largely been examined in predominantly White, upper-middle class, married couples.

Interparental Positivity Spillover Theory

• How Parents Positive Relational Interactions Influence Children.

Interparental Relationship and Child Outcomes

• Interparental interactions influence children

• Interparental conflict

  • Emotional security theory: children have a need for security, safety, protection

  • Parent conflict threatens this need

Research on Conflict

• Interparent conflict has an influence on children in many domains

  • Mental health

  • Cognition and academic outcomes

  • Social behavior

  • Physiology and physical health

• Independent of direct relationship between parent and child

Positive Interpersonal Interactions

• What about positive interparental interactions?

• What is a positive interaction?

  • Algoe (2019): “interactions infused with positive emotions, in which one individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors affects another”

  • Examples: gratitude, capitalization, or shared laughter

Positive Interparental Interactions Among Adults

• Gratitude and capitalization contribute to…

  • Enhanced positive emotions, perceived partner responsiveness, buffer attachment insecurity, etc.

• Yet, little work examining how positive interparental interactions influence children

Interparental Positivity Spillover Theory (IPST)

• Interparental Positivity Spillover Theory (IPST): positive interactions between parents spill over into children’s experiences, and therefore have a unique and beneficial influence on child well-being and development.

• This occurs beyond the influence of interparental conflict.

• Occurs in 3 key ways…

  1. Positive Emotions (Hatfield et al., 1993; Waters et al., 2017)

  2. Enhanced perception of parents (Algoe et al., 2020)

  3. Social learning (Clément & Dukes, 2017; Gruber et al., 2022)

• Positivity spills over in the form of these three things

Spillover Effects

• Positivity spillover mediates the influence of interparental positive interactions on child outcomes in both the short and long-term.

Short-Term Outcomes (Just After or That Day)

• Interparent Expressed Gratitude -> Spillover

• Spillover Includes:

  • Positive Emotions

  • Perceptions of Parents

  • Social Learning

• Spillover effects outcomes:

  • Child Behavior

  • Social outcomes

  • Child Physiology

  • Child Cognition

Long-Term Outcomes (Months or Years)

• Frequent Positive Interactions -> Frequent Spillover

• Spillover Includes:

  • Positive Emotions

  • Perceptions of Parents

  • Social Learning

• Spillover effects outcomes:

  • Improved Social Outcomes

  • Enhanced Mental Health and Well-Being

  • Enhanced Physical Health

  • Enhanced Cognitive and Academic Outcomes

Assumptions

• Spillover is most likely to occur when positive interactions are of high quality

  • Not all positive interactions are created equally

• Positive interactions have a distinct and unique influence beyond global levels of parent or familial positivity (e.g., relationship satisfaction or global positive emotions)

• Individual difference, familial, or contextual factors may play a moderating role

  • E.g., cultural background or environmental sensitivity

Current work

• My lab has begun work to test IPST

• Parents and their adolescent child (age 10-13)

  • Baseline survey and physiological monitoring

• Gratings:

  • Gratitude

  • Social support

  • Neutral

  • Creative Thinking

  • Prosocial Behavior

  • Physiological Covariation