S25 Development Quiz Study Guide

Parenting Styles (Baumrind’s Theory)

• Authoritative – High warmth and high control; parents set rules but encourage discussion and independence; linked to positive child outcomes.

• Permissive – High warmth and low control; parents are lenient and rarely enforce rules, leading to impulsive behavior in children.

• Authoritarian – Low warmth and high control; strict, controlling, and expect obedience without discussion, often leading to low self-esteem in children.

• Uninvolved – Low warmth and low control; neglectful, with little interest in the child's life, often leading to emotional and behavioral issues.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth–18 months) – Infants develop trust when caregivers provide reliability and care; mistrust develops when needs are unmet.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1–3 years) – Toddlers learn independence (autonomy), but excessive restriction can cause doubt in abilities.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3–6 years) – Children assert themselves socially and explore their environment; too much discouragement leads to guilt.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6–12 years) – Children develop confidence in their abilities through school and social interactions, or they feel inferior.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12–18 years) – Adolescents explore personal identity and future direction; failure leads to confusion.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood) – Young adults form deep relationships, or they struggle with loneliness and isolation.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle adulthood) – Adults contribute to society and family, or they feel purposeless.

8. Integrity vs. Despair (Late adulthood) – Reflection on life leads to either satisfaction or regret.

Miscellaneous Developmental Concepts

• Imprinting – The process by which certain animals form strong attachments early in life (e.g., ducklings following the first moving object they see).

• Critical Period – A specific time in development when certain skills or abilities must be learned, or they may never fully develop (e.g., language acquisition).

• Nature vs. Nurture – The debate over whether genetics (nature) or environment (nurture) plays a greater role in shaping behavior.

• Gender Roles – Societal expectations about how males and females should behave.

• Teratogens – Harmful substances (e.g., alcohol, drugs, viruses) that can cause birth defects if exposed to a fetus during pregnancy.

Attachment Theory (Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Experiment)

• Secure Attachment – Child is distressed when the caregiver leaves but is easily comforted when they return; linked to healthy relationships.

• Avoidant Attachment – Child avoids caregiver and does not seek comfort, showing little emotion when they leave or return.

• Anxious (Ambivalent) Attachment – Child is extremely distressed when caregiver leaves and is not easily comforted upon their return.

• Disorganized Attachment – Child exhibits confused or contradictory behaviors, often associated with neglect or abuse.

Harry Harlow’s Monkey Experiment

Harlow studied attachment by raising baby monkeys with two surrogate mothers—one made of wire (with food) and one made of soft cloth. The monkeys preferred the cloth mother, showing the importance of comfort and love in attachmentover just basic needs.

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth–2 years) – Infants explore the world using their senses; develop object permanence(awareness that objects exist even when out of sight).

2. Preoperational Stage (2–7 years) – Children use language but lack logical reasoning; exhibit egocentrism(difficulty seeing others' perspectives) and conservation errors (struggle to understand that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape).

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years) – Children develop logical thinking, master conservation, and understand reversibility (things can be undone).

4. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years) – Adolescents develop abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking.

Schemas, Assimilation, and Accommodation

• Schemas – Mental frameworks that help us organize and interpret information (e.g., a child’s schema for "dog" includes furry animals that bark).

• Assimilation – Fitting new information into existing schemas (e.g., calling a cat a "dog" because it fits the "furry animal" schema).

• Accommodation – Changing or creating new schemas to fit new information (e.g., learning that a cat is different from a dog and adjusting the schema).

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory

1. Preconventional Morality (Stages 1 & 2, young children)

   • Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment – Moral decisions are based on avoiding punishment.

   • Stage 2: Self-Interest – Morality is based on personal gain and rewards.

2. Conventional Morality (Stages 3 & 4, adolescence and some adults)

   • Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships – Morality is based on social approval and being a "good person."

   • Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order – Morality is based on obeying laws and maintaining order.

3. Postconventional Morality (Stages 5 & 6, few adults reach this stage)

   • Stage 5: Social Contract – Morality is based on laws, but unjust laws should be changed for the greater good.

   • Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles – Morality is based on universal human rights and ethical principles, even if they conflict with laws.