A&P 1 Lecture Exam 1

Chapter 1

Historical Scientist: Louis Pasteur

• Disproved spontaneous generation 

  • EX: mice generating in piles of clothing on the floor, leaves falling into water and generating fish

  • Experiment: 

1. Put hay and water into round bottom flask

2. After a while it became cloudy with bacteria

3. Put a stopper into flask and boiled the water, becoming clear and staying clear for many months

4. Was challenged with the idea that the results were due to the change in environment due to the cork

5. Created the goose-necked flask to disprove this theory

• Food handling process

  • Pasteurization: low heating and then rapidly cooling to kill bacteria and make food/drinks safe for consumption and good for longer

• Rabies

  • Many mammals were contracting rabies 

  • Almost always was fatal

  • Louis and his colleagues collected dead rabid animals and dissected their spinal cords. They then hung them in bell jars and heated and dehydrated them to weaken the pathogens and extracted the pathogens to inject into bitten individuals to pre expose their immune system to the pathogen  

Body Systems:

The Integumentary System:

• Forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands.

The Skeletal System

• Protects and supports the body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals.

The Muscular System

• Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture, and produces heat.

The Nervous System

• As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands

The Endocrine System

• Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.

The Lymphatic System/Immunity 

• Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body

Cardiovascular System 

• Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. the heart pumps blood.

Respiratory System

• Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs

Digestive Systems

• Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces

Urinary System 

• Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood.

Reproductive System

• Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn. 

Vocabulary:

Homeostasis: Balance within a range with the environmental pressures the body is experiencing

Hemostasis: process of repair of damaged blood vessels

Foramen Magnum: hole in the skull where the spinal cord meets the brain

Language of A&P → based on Latin and Greek 

Foramen (In latin) → window or hole

Magnum (in latin) → big

Quadrupeds: four legs

Bipeds: two legs

Chapter 2

Historical Scientists: 

Neils Bohr

• Originator of the model of the atom we utilize in bio 232 and 233

Marie Curie

• Conducted extensive research into the radioactivity of various elements, especially radium. Her work greatly influenced both chemistry and biology

Selman Waksman

• Investigated how soil microbes defended themselves against invaders which lead to the He and coworkers isolation of twenty-two different defensive compounds produced by soil microbes

• discoveries lead to the discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis

• received the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine in 1952

Vocabulary:

• Proton: positively charged subatomic particle

• Neutron: neutrally charged subatomic particle

• Electron: negatively charged subatomic particle

• Atomic Number: Number of protons in nucleus of a given element’s atom

• Variations in neutrons in atoms of the same atomic number yield isotopes of elements

• Chemically inert elements/noble gasses/noble elements: elements that all contain a completely filled outer shell →non reactive

• Chemically reactive elements: easily bond with other elements; incompletely filled outermost shell

• Ionic bond: Atomic bond where one atom will give up an electron and another atom will acquire the electron and BOTH ATOMS BECOME MORE STABLE (column 1 and 17)

• Stable Atom: Completely filled (or sometimes completely empty) outermost shell

• Covalent bonds: atoms share electrons (complete set of electrons for a percentage of the time)

• Nonpolar covalent bond: atoms have equal sharing of electrons (time spent around each atom EX: 50/50 custody)

• Polar covalent bond: atoms have unequal sharing of electrons (time spent around each atom EX: Primary custody and visitation) 

  • shown with δ+ and δ- (delta) to show which keeps the electrons for longer

•  Hydrogen bond: bond that forms between molecules that display polarity (very weak compared to bonds between atoms)

• Cohesion of water:allows movement against the pull of gravity (essential for the evolution and development of life and physiology) 

•  pH scale: acidity or basicity of solutions

• Solutions that have a ph from 0 → 7 → acidic, 7.0 → neutral, above 7.0 → 14 → basic (alkaline)

• Solution= solvent (water) + solute (materials dissolved into the solvent)

• Macromolecules: 

• The phospholipid molecule has two regions

  • The hydrophilic region: water loving

  • The hydrophobic region: water fearing

• The levels of analysis of macromolecules:

  • Primary: the sequence of amino acids forms the polypeptide chain

  • Secondary: the primary chain forms spirals (⍺-helices) and sheets (β-sheet)

  • Tertiary: superimposed on secondary structure ⍺-helices and/or β-sheet folded up to form a compact globular molecule held together by intramolecular bonds

  • Quaternary: two or more polypeptide chains, each with its own tertiary structure, combine to form a functional protein 

• Activation energy: energy required to cause a chemical reaction (less with enzyme)

• Interaction between enzyme and substrate→enzyme-substrate complex

• Enzyme is never a permanent part of a reaction 

  • Enzyme is used and then released and can be reused

• If an enzyme with the same primary and secondary structure changes its tertiary structure (denatured enzyme), its active site will change and will not fit its substrate

• Coenzymes & cofactors: alter the structure of an enzyme to increase its functionality with its substrates (fits into an enzyme to make it fit the substrates)

  • Coenzyme EX: vitamin D, vitamin A

    • Scurvy → Vitamin C deficiency; difficult to keep fresh fruits and vegetables on long sea voyages, causing the deficiency

  • Cofactor EX: minerals

• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) = Energy

  • Adenine + ribose + phosphate groups

  • Needed for cells to perform daily tasks

Chapter 3

Historical Scientist

• Camillo Golgi

  • Identified the golgi body 

  • Worked extensively in research helping to define the field of neurobiology

  • Received the nobel prize in 1906

• By having our cells be very small, we alter the surface to volume ratio

  • Smaller cells have higher surface to volume ratio

• At the surface of the cell = cell membrane

• Cell membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer (PLB)

  • Provides the cell with selective permeability 

  • Cholesterol improves the structural integrity of the PLB

  • Integral proteins: span into the PLB

  • Peripheral proteins: on outer surface of PLB

• Integral proteins:

  • Transport

  • Receptors for signal transduction

  • Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM): anchor other materials

  • Enzymatic activity

  • Intercellular joining

  • Cell-cell recognition

    • Tight junction → “spot weld” - strong, not flexible 

    • Desmosomes → cadherins (Linker glycoproteins) - strong, some flex

    • Gap junctions → an array of integral proteins will form a channel (connexon); allows movement and communication between cells 

• Diffusion: movement of material from a region of high concentration to an region of low concentration 

  • Movement along the concentration gradient

  • Simple diffusion: occurs directly across the PLB 

  • Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion: specialized to certain chemicals

  • Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion: allows many items to pass

    • Facilitated diffusion: the use of an integral protein to move materials along the concentration gradient

  • Osmosis: the movement of water

    • Simple osmosis: occurs directly across the PLB

    • Facilitated osmosis: facilitated by the osmotic protein (AKA Aquaporin)

    • If membrane is permeable to solute, solute and solution will equalize on both sides

    • If membrane is not permeable to solute, water will move to make ratio of solute to solution equal on both side, but volume will be different

    • Isotonic solution: solute concentration outside of cell is equal to solute concentration inside of cell

    • Hypertonic solution: solute concentration is higher outside of the cell than inside

    • Hypotonic solution: solute concentration is higher inside of the cell than outside of it

      • Lysis (hemolysis): rupture

• Ringer’s solution/physiological saline → water based solution used intravenously to rehydrate a patient, human or non human(0.9% salt content)

• Active transport: uses a protein to facilitate movement 

  • The use of an integral protein to move materials against the concentration gradient (move from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration) and requires the use of cellular energy 

    • Sodium-potassium pump: protein that moves sodium and potassium into and out of the cell (essential for the function of neurons) 

• Endocytosis: method to bring into cells larger packets of materials 

  • Materials are brought into the cell in vesicles 

  • Clathrin proteins guide invagination of the PLB

    • Phagocytosis: “cell eating” → solids/particulates/bacteria

    • Pinocytosis: “cell drinking” → liquids/solutions

    • receptor mediated endocytosis: “cell fishing”

• Exocytosis: release of packets of materials (vesicles) from the cell

  • SNARE proteins: form the seal between the vesicle and the membrane

    • Plasma membrane SNARE

    • Vesicular SNARE

      • Only allow the contents of the vesicle to be released and not the cytoplasm, which could be damaging to the cell

  • Mitochondria converts food energy into cellular energy

    • Built of the PLB

  • The endoplasmic reticulum is made of the PLB

    • Rough ER

      • Contains ribosomes

    • Smooth ER

  • Golgi apparatus/body 

    • PLB packages chemical agents 

  • Lysosomes 

    • PLB based organelle

    • Vesicle that contains digestive enzymes

• Microfilaments

  • Actin subunit

• Intermediate filaments

  • Fibrous subunits 

• microtubules

  • Tubulin subunits

• Centrosome matrix

  • Centrioles

    • Microtubules crossed

    • Especially important during cell division 

• Cilium (cilia)

  • Projections on cells used for cell movement and other movement such as propelling mucus out of the respiratory system

  • Most of the respiratory structures are lined with mucus membranes used to collect dirt, dust, and debris

• Cell Cycle (G1→S→G2→M): Describes the method/pattern of mitosis of a cell

  • G→ Gap or Growth phases: cell changes in size and shape (interphase)

  • S→ Synthesis Phase: replication of DNA material (interphase)

  • M → Mitotic Phase: visible stages of mitosis 

    • Stages of mitosis: 

      •  Interphase

      •  Prophase 

      •  Metaphase

      •  Anaphase 

      •  Telophase 

• Krebs’ Cycle: occurs in the mitochondria; the process of converting food energy into cell energy

  • Carbs, lipids, proteins & amino acids (any food that we eat) can be converted to cellular energy if needed

Chapter 4

Historical scientists:

• Rosalyn Franklin, Francis Watson, and James Crick

  • The researchers who identified the organization of DNA

  • Franklin took a sample of DNAand exposed it to radioactivity to obtain the pattern of the structure of DNA

  • Watson and crick got most of the credit

• Protein production in the nucleus released into the ER packaged and transported via vesicles to the golgi where it is released and can be used by the cell

  • Actin proteins: building blocks of muscle tissue

  • Keratin: builds the epidermis

  • Digestive enzymes; EX: Casein: makes up breast milk

  • Hormones/hormone receptors; Ex:sodium-potassium pump

• Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes (TYPICALLY)

  • 22 autosomal chromosome pair

  • 1 sex chromosome pair (XX female XY male)

  • Many alleles on each chromosome

    • C (cleft chin) c (no cleft)

    • John Trevolta CC or Cc giving him a cleft chin

    • Arnold Schwarzenegger cc giving him an uncleft chin

Chapter 5

Historical Scientist

• Edward Zirm

  • Completed the first Corneal transplant in 1906

  • Only successful tissue transplant for many years (1950s)

    • This is because the cornea does not have a direct blood supply and receives blood via diffusion and therefore is not easily rejected by the body

• Epithelial Tissue types

  • Squamous

    • Flat

  • Cuboidal

    • Relatively similar in all dimensions 

  • Columnar

    • Column shaped 

    • Tube-like 

    • Cigar shaped 

  • Transitional

    • Resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal or columnar 

    • Many “eyes”

• Organization of the epithelial tissue

  • Simple

    • Single layer of cells thick

  • Stratified

    • Multiple layers of cells thick

  • Pseudostratified

    • Single layer of cells of differing heights 

    • Pseudo → false

    • Pseudostratified → falsely (appearing) stratified

  The various planes of space through which a tissue or organ may be sliced will change the perspective of the view of structures  

• Exocrine glands secretes bodily products

  • Secretory epithelium: produce the products to be secreted

  • Ducts: release products

    • Simple duct does not branch

      • Simple (or simple branched) tubular or simple (or simple branched) alveolar

    • Compound duct branches

      • Compound tubular or compound alveolar or compound tubuloalveolar

    • Merocrine glands secrete their products by exocytosis (vesicles)

    • Holocrine glands release secretions and dead cell fragments by rupturing the secretory cell 

      • Sebaceous glands → produce oil→ acne

• Types of Connective tissues

  • Loose connective tissue (Areolar) 

    • Gel like matrix

    • Cushions organs, plays a role in inflammation

  • Loose connective tissue (Adipose)

    • Fat storage, protection, insulative

    • Closely packed matrix

  • Loose connective tissue (reticular) 

    • Network of reticular fibers 

    • Supports other cell types including white blood cells, mast cells, and macrophages; gives definition to soft organs such as the spleen

  • Dense connective tissue (dense regular)

    • Attaches muscles and bones to each other or to others 

    • Examples include tendons and ligaments

  • Dense connective tissue (dense irregular)

    • Provides structural strength

    • Fibrous capsules of organs and joints, the dermis of the skin and the digestive tract

  • Dense connective tissue (elastic)

    • Dense regular tissue containing a high proportion of elastic fibers

    • Allows the recoil of tissue following stretching, maintains blood flow through arteries

    • Found in the aorta

  • Bone

  • Blood

  • Cartilage: hyaline

    • Amorphous but firm matrix

    • Supports and reinforces; has firm resilient cushioning properties, resists compressive stress

    • Found in between the ribs and the joints of the long bones

  • Cartilage: Elastic

    • Similar to hyaline but more elastic fibers in the matrix

    • Maintains the shape of a structure while allowing flexibility 

    • Found in the ear and the epiglottis

  • Cartilage: Fibrocartilage

    • Matrix similar to but less firm than hyaline 

    • Tensile strength with the ability to absorb compressive shock

    • Found in intervertebral discs; pubic symphysis; disks of knee joint

• Nervous Tissues

  • Made of Neurons and neuroglia (support cells for the neurons)

• Muscle tissue

• Types of membranes

  • Cutaneous (skin)

  • Mucus 

  • Serous- lines the exterior of the organ

    • Serous fluid

      • Lubrication fluid to prevent cellular damage from friction of organ on organ contact