1.0 Behaviourism

Behaviorism is a school of psychology established by John B. Watson. Behaviorism centers on the idea that all behaviors are learned, rather than being innate.

Watson's Little Albert Experiment

To prove his theory, Watson conducted the "Little Albert" experiment. This experiment involved conditioning a nine-month-old baby to fear a white rat.

● Initially, Albert showed no fear of the rat. However, Watson repeatedly paired the presentation of the rat with a loud, frightening noise.

● Eventually, Albert began to cry at the mere sight of the rat, even without the noise. He also generalized this fear to other white, furry objects.4

This experiment, while demonstrating that behaviors can be learned, is considered highly unethical by today's standards for several reasons:45

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Albert's mother was not informed of the experiment or gave consent.6

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The experiment caused Albert unnecessary distress and potential harm.7

Classical Conditioning

Watson's work built upon the earlier research of Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning.7

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Pavlov's famous experiment involved conditioning dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by repeatedly pairing the bell with the presentation of food.8

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This process of associating a neutral stimulus (the bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (the food) to produce a conditioned response (salivation) is the foundation of classical conditioning.89

The sources provide examples of classical conditioning:

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A child gagging at the sight of a doctor after repeated throat swabs.9

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Feeling anxious when hearing the phrase "We need to talk."9

Importantly, classical conditioning involves involuntary, physiological responses.10 It can be subject to extinction, where the learned association is undone, either naturally or through therapy.10

The sources also note the application of classical conditioning in the classroom:

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Teachers can use techniques like playing soothing music to calm students.10

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However, unintentional classical conditioning can also lead to negative outcomes like test anxiety.11

Operant Conditioning

Another key figure in behaviorism is B.F. Skinner, who developed operant conditioning. This type of conditioning focuses on voluntary, controllable behaviors.1112

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Skinner believed that behaviors are shaped and maintained by reinforcements or rewards.11

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He is known for his work with the Skinner box, a controlled environment used to train animals to perform specific actions through rewards.1213

Operant conditioning follows the principle of R-S (Response-Stimulus), meaning the behavior occurs before the reinforcement.1314

The sources describe several types of reinforcement:

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Positive reinforcement: Providing a reward after the desired behavior is displayed.15

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Negative reinforcement: Performing a behavior to avoid punishment.15

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Extinction: Withholding any reinforcement to eliminate a behavior.16

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Punishment: Associating a behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to decrease its occurrence.1617

Shaping is a technique used in operant conditioning to gradually reinforce behaviors that increasingly resemble the desired outcome.1819

The sources emphasize the distinction between negative reinforcement and punishment:

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Negative reinforcement involves removing something unpleasant, leading to an increase in the desired behavior.18

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Punishment involves adding or removing something perceived as "bad", leading to a decrease in the undesired behavior.