Qualitative Student Copy

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

OVERVIEW

• Key Topics:

  • Qualitative designs and approaches

  • Sampling and data collection in qualitative studies

  • Analysis of qualitative data

  • Trustworthiness and integrity in qualitative research

QUALITATIVE DESIGNS AND APPROACHES

Characteristics of Qualitative Research Design

• Emergent: Adapts as research unfolds.

• Flexible & adjustable: Permits changes during data collection.

• Triangulation: Uses multiple data collection strategies.

• Holistic approach: Seeks to understand the entire context.

• Involvement: Researchers are deeply engaged and reflexive, necessitating significant time commitment.

• Ongoing analysis: Continuous data analysis informs further strategies.

Qualitative Research Traditions

1. Ethnography

2. Phenomenology

3. Grounded Theory

4. Others: Descriptive, Interpretive

ETHNOGRAPHY

• Focus: Describes and interprets culture and behavior.

• Methodology: Extensive fieldwork is essential.

• Cultural Insights: Derived from members' words and actions; assumes culture shapes experiences.

• Emic Perspective: Aims for insider views to uncover tacit knowledge.

• Data Sources:

  • Cultural behavior: Actions of members.

  • Cultural artifacts: Materials members create.

  • Cultural speech: Language used.

• Participant observation is crucial for understanding the culture in action.

PHENOMENOLOGY

• Focus: Understanding everyday life experiences.

  • Examines the essence of phenomena as experienced by individuals.

  • Emphasizes lived experiences and reality.

Descriptive Phenomenology

• Philosophical Foundation: Based on Husserl.

• Objectives: Describes human experience in daily life; may use a reflexive journal.

Phases of Descriptive Phenomenology

1. Bracketing: Setting aside preconceived notions about the study phenomenon.

2. Intuiting: Staying open to meanings from participants.

3. Analyzing: Extracting key statements and developing essential meanings.

4. Describing: Defining the phenomenon studied.

Interpretive Phenomenology

• Foundation: Based on Heidegger.

• Characteristic: Hermeneutics is vital for understanding lived experiences.

• Methods: Utilizes in-depth interviews and supplementary data.

GROUNDED THEORY

• Developers: Glaser and Strauss.

• Roots: Symbolic interaction; understanding social interactions.

• Contribution: Development of middle-range theories.

Grounded Theory Methods

• Sample Size: Typically 20-30 individuals; contextually driven.

• Flow: Data collection, analysis, and sampling happen concurrently.

DESCRIPTIVE QUALITATIVE STUDIES

• Approach: Mix of designs and methods, focusing on holistic descriptions based on participants' perceptions.

• Techniques: Content analysis of narratives to identify themes/patterns.

OTHER QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• Variability: Can focus on individuals, families, groups, or organizations.

• Timeframe: Data collected over extended periods.

• Methods:

  • Case Studies: Story analysis about experiences.

  • Narrative Analysis: Examining texts.

  • Feminist Research: Understanding women's lives relating to gender issues.

  • Participatory Action Research: Collaborating with marginalized groups.

SAMPLING IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Importance of Sample Quality

• Requires information-rich data sources.

• Aims to discover meaning and uncover realities rather than generalize.

Types of Qualitative Sampling

• Convenience Sampling: Economical, but less preferred.

• Snowball Sampling: Based on existing networks.

• Purposive Sampling: Deliberate case selection beneficial for the study.

• Theoretical Sampling: Maximizing data collection to support emerging theories.

Sample Size in Qualitative Research

• There are no formal criteria; determined by informational needs.

• Data saturation guides decisions to stop sampling.

SAMPLING IN SPECIFIC QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TYPES

Ethnography

• Engages with numerous culture members; informal discussions with 25-50 informants.

Phenomenology

• Small sample sizes (10 or fewer), focusing on participants' lived experiences.

Grounded Theory

• 20-30 participants optimal, utilizing theoretical sampling.

DATA COLLECTION IN QUALITATIVE STUDIES

• Collection methods may evolve throughout the study.

• Common methods include self-reports and observations.

Qualitative Self-Report Techniques

• Unstructured Interviews: Conversational and flexible.

• Semi-structured Interviews: Use topic guides.

• Focus Groups: Small group interactions moderated.

• Diaries: Historical record keeping of daily life.

• Photo Elicitation: Discussions based on images, including photovoice.

Unstructured Observational Methods

• Aim: Understand behaviors/experiences naturally.

• Risks: Reactivity and observational biases.

Participant Observation

• Long-term involvement, documenting through:

  • Field logs.

  • Descriptive and reflective notes.

ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE DATA

• Focus: Identifying patterns/themes in non-numerical data (words, stories).

Challenges of Qualitative Analysis

• No universal analysis protocol; diverse narrative data may overwhelm.

Data Management Steps

1. Develop a coding scheme.

2. Code the data.

3. Identify themes.

4. Interpret data findings.

Content Analysis

• Break down narrative data into smaller segments.

• Code segments according to content.

• Group material by shared themes.

Ethnographic Analysis: Spradley’s 12-Step Method

1. Locate informants.

2. Conduct interviews.

3. Create ethnographic records.

4. Implement descriptive questions.

5. Analyze interviews (domain analysis).

6. Structural questioning and taxonomic analysis.

7. Contrast questioning and componential analysis.

8. Discover themes and write ethnography.

Phenomenological Analysis

• Different schools: Duquesne (descriptive), Utrecht (interpretive).

GROUNDED THEORY ANALYSIS

• Three analytical approaches: Glaser, Strauss, Charmaz.

• Central focus on core variable development.

TRUSTWORTHINESS AND INTEGRITY IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Rigor and Validity Debates

• Varied opinions on the applicability of validity and rigor in qualitative research.

Terminology Confusion

• No consensus vocabulary on trustworthiness, validity, etc.

Lincoln & Guba’s Framework

• Key goal is establishing trustworthiness through:

  • Credibility

  • Dependability

  • Confirmability

  • Transferability

Trustworthiness Criteria

• Credibility: Truth of data interpretations.

• Dependability: Stability of data over time.

• Confirmability: Objectivity and accuracy of findings.

• Transferability: Applicability of findings to other contexts.

• Authenticity: Accurate portrayal of diverse realities.

Strategies to Enhance Quality

• Prolonged engagement with participants.

• Persistent observation.

• Reflexivity and audit trails.

• Member checking for validation.

• Data triangulation for conclusion validation.

• Method triangulation for comprehensive understanding.