• Subject 3 is on military expansion from 1931 to 1941 in Japan, Germany and Italy.

• The focus of this prescribed subject is on the causes of expansion, key events, and international responses to the expansion.

• Discussion of domestic and ideological issues should therefore be considered in terms of the extent to which they contributed to this expansion.

Japanese Expansion in East Asia (1931-1941)

Origins of Japanese Nationalism and Militarism

• Where did these notions come from?

  • In the late 19th century, there was a determination from the Japanese leadership to turn themselves into a Western-styled military power

  • Japan believed it was their destiny to lead the Asian sphere and become an imperial power

    • Much the same way that the United States felt it was their destiny to stretch from sea to sea

  • Needed more raw materials

    • Relatively small nation compared to their large population

    • To achieve their goals of industrialization, modernization and gaining power, they needed more raw materials than what was within their own shores

  • Suffered discrimination from Western Powers

    • Including those powers at the Paris Peace Conference and the US

    • Built resentment and hatred

  • All these factors put together contributed to pushing Japan towards these nationalist and militarist ideas

    • Become a militarist to expand

• Historic developments that led to these ideologies and situation in Japan

  • 1853 → The first American fleet led by Commodore Perry arrived in Tokyo Harbor

    • Not long after the British had imposed their will on the Chinese in the Opium Wars

      • Japan was aware of the situation China faced due to this → did not wish to experience the same, refused to bow down

    • Sentiments against the Japanese government began to grow

      • The isolationism within the Japanese government and their refusal to modernize

  • 1868 → Previous sentiments and isolationism comes to a head with a revolution in Japan

    • The Meiji Restoration

    • A Japanese emperor was restored to preeminence over the government of Japan

    • Lead to a rapid modernization of Japan

  • Impacts of the Meiji Restoration → essentially all focused on reforming based on Western models

    • Development of a Western-style Constitution with a representative body called Diet

    • The Emperor of Japan was now the Commander-in-Chief of the military, not just a figurehead anymore

      • Change from a centuries old tradition

    • Economic reforms pushed to Westernize and industrialize Japan’s economy

    • Education reforms will model Japanese after those in the West (particularly German model of schooling)

      • But the education itself was still strictly dictated by the central government

      • Focused on developing a strong Japanese nationalist identity

    • Military reforms → moved away from traditional notion of samurai warriors

      • Developed instead into modern Western-style officers

  • Japan as an imperialist power

    • Japan utilized the developments from the Meiji Restoration, industrialization and modernization to grow as an imperialist power

    • Grew as an imperialist power largely through land concessions after winning wars

    • In 1894, they went to war with China in the Sino-Japanese war

      • Essentially the First Sino-Japanese War

      • New modern Japanese military going against a rather outdated Chinese army

      • Resounding victory for Japan → showed themselves as a modern, major player in the global landscape

      • After the war, Japan took some land concessions

        • Took Taiwan

        • Moved to grant Korea its independence

Though became essentially a puppet state of the Japanese

• Gained concessions within Manchuria

  • Took on Russia in the Russo-Japanese War

    • Japan had large advantages, particularly as it was highly difficult and long winded for Russia to get its navy into the Pacific

    • The war ends largely because of the tensions in Russia’s domestic politics (1905 revolution)

    • Japan won

    • The defeat of Russia was significant for Japan’s entry into the Western world as an imperialist power

      • An East-Asian nation defeated a European power in war

    • Took land concessions from Russia → aided them in the continuation of expansion of their empire

  • Participated in WW1 on the side of the Allies (and won)

    • Launched attacks against German holdings in East Asia during this war

      • Received these holdings as League of Nations mandates in the aftermath

    • It was the WW1 developments that pushed Japan towards being even more nationalistic and militaristic

    • The League of Nations Conference after WW1 does not accept Japan’s request for a racial equality clause included

      • Japan as an Asian nation looking for equal representation in this community of nations

      • They wanted racial equality and unity to be actually codified

      • As the Western powers had so many colonial holdings outside the Western world they did not want the clause, so it was rejected from the Treaty of Versailles

      • This created large frustrations for Japan against the West

Internationalism in the 1920s:

• Despite the frustrations Japan had against the West, they made a move in the 1920s towards internationalism

  • Working with the international community

• After WW1, nobody wanted to get into another major conflict

  • Japan’s played its part in this

  • Led by diplomat (and later foreign minister) Shidehara Kijuro, Japan thus adopted a more international role

• Participated in the Washington Conference of 1921-22

  • A series of diplomatic meetings in Washington DC

  • This resulted in multiple multilateral treaties and agreements

    • Japan enters into these, along with other nations

      • The Four Power Treaty

US, UK, France and Japan all agreed to talk with each other if any of their Asian holdings are threatened

• Nine Power Treaty - Brings even more nations in, keeping China open for all those nine powers

• Five Power Naval Treaty - Japan agrees to limits the size and scope of its navy

A major sticking point for the opponents of the agreement is that Japan agrees to have a smaller navy than the other four nations

Japan feels slighted and discriminated against

• The end of the 1920s sees a negative development in Japan’s relationship with the West

  • The democratic Japanese government was rather fragile

    • Financial scandals led to a decline in public support → questioned them

  • Fears of left-wing radicalism and the rise of communism

    • Due to the 1917 Russian Revolutions leading to the establishment of the communist Soviet Union

    • The largest nation of the world is now communist → scared every other western-style economic systems

  • Conservative groups and the Army in Japan pushed against the idea of internationalism

    • Army was built to expand and conquer → internationalism does not achieve this

  • After WW1, the Japanese economy was slumped

    • During and right after WW1, Japan’s economy boomed

      • Japan did not suffer from the horrors of the war within its own country, so their economy was able to flourish

      • Gave a lot to support the warring nations both during and the immediate aftermath

    • However, in the early 1920s when the world was being put back together lead to the Japanese economy slumping

    • Made worse by the 1929 Great Depression

      • Japan was deeply reliant on foreign trade for imports and exports

      • Particularly hit hard

• Chinese instability

  • China suffered from tremendous political instability after the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911-12

    • Various entities competing for control of the Chinese nation

    • Made China a divided nation

  • The divide in China made the country ideal and open for attack

  • A rivalry in the late 20s grew between two main political entities → the Guomindang (GMD, Chinese Nationalists), led by Jiang Jieshie and the Communist Party of China (CCP), led by Mao Zedong

    • These two parties started a civil war that grew over multiple years

  • The Chinese instability emboldened Japanese militarists and nationalists to expand into Asia

    • China was seen as “for the taking”

    • When Japan had already moved into Korea, Manchuria particularly and the rest of China was easily accessible

Causes of Expansion

Political instability in China

• China was a divided nation after the fall of the Qing Dynasty

• But Jiang Jieshi the leader of the nationalist movement GMD moved to unify China

• GMD launched the “Northern Expedition” where they sent armies to the North of China to try to bring in territories not under the GMD’s control

  • Unify China under them

  • Including Manchuria

  • Caused the split between the GMD and the CCP → begun a Civil War between the two factions

    • Jiang’s hope of unification is thus not achieved but made worse

Political instability in Japan

• Growing disagreements between the political leadership (the Emperor, prime minister, etc.) and the militarian leadership

  • Who is ultimately pulling the strings of foreign policy? → military leadership enabled to make many decisions through force and power

  • Came to a head when a Manchurian warlord named Zhang Zoulin had his own plans to invade into China

    • Similarly to Jiang, tried to unify under his control

    • The Qing Dynasty was a Manchirian dynasty → therefore a large desire for the area, source of power

    • Japan does not want to see a powerful Manchuria that unites Chona

The Japanese military (the Quangtong army, based in Korea and Manchuria) moved against Zhang

• Assassinated the Warlord without the Emperor’s sanction

• First sign that the Japanese political authority does not actually have control of the Japanese military

The Great Depression

• Beginning in the US in the 1929 → impacted every country in the world that does business overseas

• Devastated Japan, as their economy relied on imports from outside and exports of Japanese manufactured goods

• The US launched a hard protective tariff against imported goods from Japan called the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act

  • Increased the price of Japanese imports by 200%

  • Those Japanese exports were thus crushed

  • Example of exports: silk

  • This lead to a spike of unemployment in Japan

    • Economic discontent from the Depression paired with the above political discontent proves a powerful and dangerous mix

Manchuria

• The Great Depression pushed the Japanese military and more in the Japanese political leadership to feel the need to acquire their own raw materials

  • Did not want to rely on a country like the US for steel, oil, etc.

• Japan sees Manchuria as the place they can get these materials

  • Manchuria is a massive tract of land north of Korea in East-Asia

• Manchuria is seen as living space for an ever-growing Japanese population

• Quangtong Army based in Korea and Manchuria moves to seize the Manchuria land against the Japanese Emperor’s wishes

Key Events

The Manchurian Crisis

• Begins with the Mukden Incident of 1931

  • Happens outside of this Manchurian town called Mukden

  • There is an explosion at a Japanese-owned railway (September 18)

    • Placed there as a concession gained from China after the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894

    • Japan already had business interests in Manchuria, Japan already had armies stationed around China and Asia to defend their business interests

  • The Kwangtung Army claims this attack on their railways was committed by the Chinese

    • Used this as a causes belli (a reason for war), opportunity to move against Manchuria under the guise of protecting themselves and their interests

  • The Army thus moved against Manchruia and attacked to seize the land

• By early 1932, Manchuria was completely under Japanese control

• Fighting also broke out in the city of China’s Shanghai, as prompted by The Manchurian Crisis

  • Japanese air forces bombed the city

• Ultimately, China (through Jiang and the GMD) ceded control of Manchuria to Japan with the Treaty of Tanggu in May 1933

  • This made Manchuria essentially a puppet state of Japan within China

  • Renamed it Manchukuo (Japanese name to establish presence)

  • Pu Yi was placed as the Emperor of Manchukuo

    • Pu Yi was the last Qing Dynasty Emperor in China, a young boy back then

    • In charge of the puppet government for the Japanese

    • To give a local ruler that had some notoriety gave a positive public face to what Japan was doing

• Jiang ceded Manchuria in hopes that it would be enough for Japan and that they would not push any further

  • Also because it would be really difficult for Japan to actually hold on to Manchuria → hoped it would eventually force them to back out

  • Jiang’s thinking at this point was that his rivalry with the CCP was more important to deal with in the immediate than Japan

    • Said: “Japan was a disease of the skin while communism was a disease of the heart”

• Results of the crisis

  • Deepened tensions between Japan and Western powers

  • Japan and its action in Manchuria was condemned by the LoN

    • (More part of the results curriculum)

  • It was an abandonment of Japanese internationalism where they complied with the West and worked together in unity

  • The GMD focused on defeating the CCP and let Japan run somewhat loose

  • Japan largely benefited economically from the resources Manchuria provided

  • Definitely see that Japan’s military was pulling the strings of the democratically elected government and even the Emperor

The Dark Valley in the 1930s

• Years of political and military division in Japan

  • Questioning the authority of the Japanese democratic government compared to the power of the Japanese military

  • Recognize the two major factions that are growing in the military

• The Imperial Way → a faction in the military that pushed for military dictatorship in Japan

  • See the Soviet Union and Communism as Japan’s biggest adversary going forward

• The Control Faction → second military factions that is calling for more military influence on the government and pushing for conquest of China

• Both on these factions are imperialist powers

  • Difference is whether to focus on Russia with a full dictatorship or focusing on China with large military influence

• In February 1936 Imperial Way attempted a coup of the Japanese government

  • Following an assassination attempt on a Control Faction leader

  • 1500 Imperial Way officers marched into Tokyo (Japan’s capital), attempting to seize power

  • Tried to seize power of the country

  • The Coup failed and the Imperial Way was consequently discredited

    • This left the Control Faction in charge of Japan

• General Hideki Tojo of the Control Faction became the Chief-of-Staff of the Kwangtung Army following the failure of Imperial Way

  • Within weeks, he moved Japan to attack mainland China for the Second Sino-Japanese War

The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1941)

• Begins in July of 1937 with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident

  • When Japanese soldiers moved across the Marco Polo Bridge outside Beijing and began attacking the Chinese

• The ground war was supported by absolutely devastating air raids

  • A sign of what modern war was going to be looking like (WW2)

• One of the most disastrous events in this conflict was known as the Rape of Nanjing

  • The GMD government moved to the city of Nanjing from Beijing as the attacks there began

  • So Nanjing became the new prime target for Japanese attacks

  • Atrocities and crimes against humanity were committed by the Japanese military against Chinese civilians in nanjing

    • Hundreds of thousands murdered

    • “One of the ugliest scenes that we will see coming out of the Second World War”

• Results of the 2nd Sino-Japanese War

  • Japanese hopes of a quick surrender of the Chinese were never realized

  • Strong Chinese nationalism

    • Jiang of GMD and Mao of CCP actually joined forces during this war to defeat the Japanese

    • Chinese guerilla forces (unconventional fighters) were able to slow down Japanese advances

  • International outrage over the atrocities committed by Japan

  • The Japanese had hoped to build the “Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere” → this failed

    • Japanese propaganda that said all the East Asian nations should work together to drive out Western forces

    • In reality it was just Japan’s attempt to dominate all these Asian nations and make China surrender

  • The military exerted even more control over the civilian government

    • In October of 1941, General Tojo became Prime Minister

Tripartite and Neutrality Pacts

• Following this expansion into China, Japan moved their diplomatic negotiations to other fronts

  • Tried to further pave their way to the conquest of East and Southeast Asia

  • Meaning: Join the Axis part of WW2

• The Tripartite Axis Pact war formed with Germany and Italy in September of 1940

  • Official alliance of WW2

  • Germany and Italy focused on European expansion, while Japan could focus on East Asian expansion

  • Japan gained the ability to move into European colonial holdings in Asia

• In April of 1941, Japan signed a Neutrality Act with the USSR

  • This was right before the Soviet Union were attacked by Germany itself

  • As the Control Faction of the military won power of Japan as opposed to Imperial Way, Japan did not see Russia as the immediate threat

  • Decided that the two nations would not attack each other

  • Eased Japanese concerns on their Northern border of their expansion

    • As they did not have to worry the USSR would push into their (newfound) territories

    • Allowed Japan to again focus on South-East Asia instead of Europe

• Events: The outbreak of war and Pearl Harbor

  • In late 1941, Japan began moving troops into Indochina

    • Indochina was an area of China that was a colony of the French

      • Today this is Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar and Thailand

    • As the French in Indochina fall to the Nazis, Japan now has an open canal to move their armies

    • Resulted in the US putting an embargo against Japan

      • Embargo = an official ban on trade or other commercial activity, often a punishment

      • Restricted the sale of steel and oil → essential products for Japan’s military expansion

  • Negotiations between the US and Japan are unsuccessful at resolving the increasingly tense situation

    • While negotiations are taking place, Japan is preparing for an attack against the US

  • On December 7 1941 Japan made the first attack against the US that caused war between the nations → the attack on Pearl Harbor

    • Also attacked the British’s Hong Kong, Malaya and Singapore, the Dutch East Indies and the Philippines held by the US

    • These massive attacks had the goal of incapacitating (prevent from functioning in a normal way) the Western navies

      • Including the US’ with Pearl Harbor

      • 90% of the American mid-Pacific air and sea power was either destroyed or severely damaged

      • But Pearl Harbor was still not closed off

        • Despite the Japanese’s wishes of closing off the narrow harbor and the opening to the Pacific Ocean

      • American Aircraft Carriers was out to sea during the attack → the most important aspects of the US’ fleet

        • They were thus not damaged at all

    • In response to the attack on Pearl Harbor, the US declared war on Japan on December 8 1941

International Response to Japanese Aggression

Response to the Manchurian Crisis

• The involvement of the League of Nations (LoN particularly)

• The first specific time the LoN failed to do precisely what it was created for

  • Which was provide collective security to all of its member nations

• The LoN did not have the enforcement to punish Japan without the consensus of the members

  • They had no army or military or even economic sanctions to put onto Japan, unless all member states agree to do so

  • There was not enough agreement for that to be possible

• LoN also did not have the necessary influence of the US

  • The US never joined the league back in 1920 as the American Senate did not want to approve the Treaty of Versailles

  • If the league acted on its own without bringing the US along, Japan could still do business with America and not be affected by the league’s punishment

    • This would thus impact the league more than it would impact Japan

• Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928 also did not allow for any enforcement

  • Also called Pact of Paris (because it was signed in Paris)

  • Signatories included France, the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Belgium, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Italy and Japan

  • An international agreements where the involved countries agreed not to go to war

  • Their protocol did not involve any enforcement → thus they could not realistically do anything to stop Japan

• So what did they do?

  • Following the Mukden Incident, China appealed to the League for help

    • Meetings were held

    • They concluded with sending a fact-finding mission into China called The Lytton Commission

      • To go into Manchuria and investigate at the railway in Mukden to understand what went down

      • This would result in a report titled the Lytton Commission Report

      • This would take so long to finalize that by the time the report was provided, Japan had already taken over Manchuria and declared Manchukuo independent

Japan likely knew this, which is why they did not do anything about the League

The Lytton Commission Report

• What was in the report? What were their findings?

  • Reported that Japan absolutely had special interests in Manchuria, but that their use of force was unacceptable and unjustified

  • Called for Japan to give up its territory and withdraw its forces from China

  • Manchukuo was not recognized as an independent state by the LoN

  • These problems that Japan were having with China could only be solved through Sino-Japanese cooperation

• Japan refused to accept the report

  • Withdrew from the LoN in protest in March 1933

  • This again was a display of the League’s weaknesses → all Japan, as the aggressor state, had to do was leave the League to not be affected

    • They simply chose not to listen and the League was not powerful enough to make them

• Rationale of the League

  • Why were they not more stern with Japan?

  • No one wanted a wider war in the region

    • They all remembered WW1 and knew the consequences of modern warfare

  • No one was willing to ‘go it alone’

    • They did not want to deal with Japan on their own

    • If the entire League was not involved, individual states were not willing to give Japan consequences themselves

  • Countries like Britain, France and Germany were democratic states at this time → needed to do what the public wants

    • The public had no desire for a war in East Asia or to become involved

      • Partly due to understanding the consequences of war

      • But also partly due to racist sentiments → these are not European countries that are in danger

Why risk European lives to protect Chinese interests?

• Economic concerns were more pressing than Japan’s warfare

  • Due to the Great Depression, economics were prioritized

  • US were not compelled to support them and the League needed their help if they were to do anything

  • China’s response to the Japanese aggression in Manchuria

    • Jiang had previously focused on the Civil War rather than Japan → this resulted in him losing support in China

    • As Japan pushed into mainland China, Jiang was (literally) forced to prioritize the war with Japan

      • This change was caused by the Xi’an incident where two of his generals kidnapped Jiang and forced him to accept an alliance with the CCP to defeat Japan

    • The Second United Front was created → an alliance between the GDM and the CCP

      • The Civil War was put on hold for a war of national resistance against Japan

      • Wider war followed the Marco Polo Bridge Incident where all of China resisted together with joint forces

US responses to Japan

• Response to aggression

  • Throughout the 1930s, the US was continuing their policy of isolationism from international conflicts

    • WW1 was used as an excuse to discourage future involvement in foreign wars

    • This was strengthened in the 30s by the economic depression → it was more pressing and immediate to prioritize any foreign conflicts

  • Americans didn’t see their own interests directly impacted or threatened by the Manchurian Crisis

  • In the early 1930s, the US was trading more with Japan and more significantly with them than with China

• Response to Manchuria

  • The American response to Manchuria came in the form of The Stimson Doctrine

    • A non-recognition of any agreement that violated China’s territory, international law or the Kellogg-Briand Pact

    • They did not recognize Manchukuo as an independent state

  • The Doctrine upheld a principle, but did not commit the US to any action

    • Sort of a slap on the wrist with no further consequences

• Response to the Sino-Japanese War

  • The closest the US came to taking action against Japan

  • After 1937, Japan’s continued aggression against China wa snow seen as a threat to US interest

    • Not by everyone in the US, but by President Franklin D. Roosevelt

    • But Roosevelt was still restrained by the Neutrality Acts that Congress had passed and he had signed → Acts that kept the US out of any threat of foreign war

  • In December of 1937 the Japanese inadvertently (accidentally, without knowledge or intent) sunk an American navy ship in the Yangtze river called the Panay

    • This is called the Panay Incident

    • Japan immediately apologized and offered compensation to the US

    • This started to pull the US more and more against the Japanese and harbor anti-Japanese sentiments

  • By 1938, Roosevelt began to work around the Neutrality Acts by offering financial aid to the Chinese

    • A legal loophole, as the 2nd Sino-Japanese War was never actually declared a war

  • As the war escalated, the US launched a Moral Embargo against Japan in January of 1939

    • Started restricting the sale of goods like plane and aviation parts → goods Japan needed to fight a war

  • In 1941 with the passage of the Lend Lease Act of the US, they were enabled to get more involved in international conflicts

    • They began sending more money and fight planes to China

  • By July 1941, Japan was pushing even further and sending troops into South-East Asia

    • The US began freezing all Japanese Assets in American banks and began expanding the embargo against Japan to include oil and steel

• Response to Pearl Harbor

  • Partly due to the previous responses, Japan eventually launches an attack on Pearl Harbor (and other nations) in December 1941

  • Following this, the US publicly strongly supported entering war against Japan

    • As they had been attacked and involved

  • Declared war on December 8 1941 → officially bringing the US into WW2

German Expansion (1933-1941)

Origins of German Nationalism

Treaty of Versailles - Punished & humiliated Germany→ Rise of Hitler due to the weak Weimar Republic and the poor economy

Causes of Expansionism

German Foreign Policy

• Strategies

Weimar period – under foreign minister Gustav Stresemann they pursued “fulfillment”. The idea was to try and earn respect and sympathy of Europe in order to get revisions to the harshness of Versailles. They hoped to get changes made to lost territory (Polish corridor) and reduction in reparations. To do this, they went out of their way to make concessions and to show willingness to adhere to T of V in areas that were seen as less important (ex. Western border with France = Locarno Treaty).

Nazi period – Also wanted revisions to T of V but not through cooperation. Saw fulfillment as weak - they would force changes by threats of violence or actual invasion. Hitler announced he would not pay reparations and he would rearm Germany.

• Goals

  • A “Gross Deutschland” / Pan-Germanism:

    Aimed to unify Austrian Germans with Germany and unify Germany with German minorities in other states (i.e. Czechoslovakia and Poland).

  • Race and living space (conquering Europe):

    A greater Germany only consisting of “pure Germans who were of Aryan race. Highlighted Social Darwinism. This involved the dispossession of “inferior races” (ex. Slavs, Russians, Ukrainians, Poles and Jews).

  • Natural Enemies and Allies (isolate France):

    Russia and France viewed as enemies and Britain and Italy as allies

  • Get of the Treaty of Versailles

  • Develop alliances with British

  • Lebensraum (colonies in East EU) British conquer world

Rise of Nationalism due to Nazi ideology & a push for living space

Internationally countries were isolating themselves, Lon Proved to be weak, collective security didn’t exist

Hitler created bilateral agreements to further divide Europe security

Hitler begins rearmament and prepares for war, not challenged

Rapallo Treaty (1922) - trade and cooperation agreement with USSR.

USSR also a “pariah” state – so they come together with a trade deal that helped Germany with natural resources in exchange for technology. Secret part allowed for Germany to train soldiers and air force in USSR.

Locarno Pact (1925) - France and Germany agree to respect western border laid down at Versailles with Italy and UK as guarantors

Key Events

1933 - Hitler pulls out of Disarmament conference (Blames France)

1934 - Austrian Nazis attempt a coup, Italy shows aggression, Hitler backs down

1934 non-aggression pact with Poland- Hitler stated “all our agreements with Poland have a temporary significance. Secured Germany’s eastern frontier.

1935 - Hitler wins Saar Plebiscite to rejoin Germany...rearmament increases

1935 London Naval Agreement - countenancing a German navy but limiting it to 35 percent size for the security of the State.

1936 - Hitler support Spanish Civil War, tests out Blitzkrieg

Rome-Berlin Axis (1936) – btwn Hitler and Musso followed by the Anti Comintern Pact. To “safeguard their common interests”.

Austro-German Agreement (1936)– Germany reaffirmed its recognition of Austria’s independence; Both agreed not to interfere with each other; Conduction of foreign policy in Austria that it is a “German State”. Secret clauses gave prominent Austrian Nazis a role In the government. Hitler eventually launched an attack on Austria in 1938.

Remilitarization of the Rhineland (1936)- remilitarization meant Hitler could build fortification and protect Germany form France. Success – not opposed (other than words) by major powers. Minimal Impact on International Relations – Hitler had already left the L of N in 1933 and announced rearmament. This was another step that was not surprising.

Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) – took part for multiple reasons : wanted a government in Spain that would supply mineral sources and provide military bases; opportunity to test out air force; ability to pose as defender of European civilization against communists; further undermine French security by setting up a pro-fascist government in Spain.

War went on for 3 years , polarised opinions in Europe; improved relationship btwn Hitler and Musso.

Reinforced suspicions btwn Britain and France on one side and the Soviet Union on the other, preventing a strong anti-Fascist alliance.

Anschluss (invasion of Austria –1938) - Actions of Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg gave Hitler the opportunity to take over Austria.

Schuschnigg was forces to agree to a list of demands from the Nazi party with the threat that if he failed to follow, Hitler would march into Austria. After Schuschnigg’s failed attempt to let Austrians vote whether or not they wanted German authority, he resigned,and Hitler marched into Austria.

Promoted friendship btwn “two Fascist tyrants” – Hitler and Musso, further polarising European powers. Since Germany now had access to Vienna, they were only one step away from Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Yugoslavia.

1938 - Hitler takes Sudetenland (Czech) → Munich Conference

provided "cession to Germany of the Sudeten German territory" of Czechoslovakia.

Liquidation of Czechoslovakia (1939) – After the Munich Conference Czechoslovakia lost 70%of their heavy industry, 1/3 of their population and natural mountainous defences and fortifications. Hitler took this as an opening to put forward his plans of conquering Czechoslovakia. Emil Hacha, Czech President, turned to Hitler for German protection but instead was forced to sign over Bohemia and Moravia to Hitler.

On March 1939 German troops occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia. Bohemia and Moravia were declared protectorate of Germany.

Action led to a change in British policy towards Germany “no reliance could be placed on any of the assurances given by the Nazi leaders.

Pact of Steel (1939) – agreement btwn Germany and Italy to come to aid of the other if it became involved in hostility “contrary to its wishes and desires”

Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939) – prevented the Soviets from forming an alliance with Poland.

1939 Invasion of Poland (start of WW2) – Hitler set up a fake Polish attack to use as an excuse for war. With the British and Poland alliance, Britain presented an ultimatum to Germany to call off the attack but did not receive a response. Britain and France then declared war.

In the beginning Hitler continued to achieve swift victories in Poland, Holland, Belgium and France. “Battle for Britain”-(summer-autumn 1940) – Germans fought for control of the air over the English Channel.

During this, Hitler turn to attacking the Soviet Union in 1941 thinking that it would be a swift victory.

Germans occupied northern France and the Atlantic coast. Hitler’s attack on the Soviets did not go according to Hitler’s plans and resulted in a much longer war.

International Response to German Expansion

Public opinion was against getting involved in another war after WWI

Felt Treaty of Versailles was too harsh

No one was militarily ready to fight

France was politically weak and unstable, relied on British support

LoN was weak and unable to enforce collective security

Economic sanctions didn’t have an impact since they weren’t enforced

Soviets stayed out, more concerned with themselves

USA controlled by isolationism, no one wanted to get involved.

Italian Expansion (1933-1941)

Origins of Italian Nationalism

ITALY IS UNIFIED AS A NATION THROUGH THE 1860s

1870 and 1923 is an era known as Liberal Italy

DESPITE UNIFICATION, THERE WAS GREAT DIVISION IN ITALTY DUE TO LACK OF COHESION AND IDENTITY

SECTIONALISM: NORTH AGAINST THE SOUTH; WEALTHY AGAINST WORKING CLASS, REGLIOUS AGAINST SECULAR

FASCISM

GLORIFICATION OF WAR

CALL FOR IMPERIAL EXPANSION

ECONOMIC CRISIS

LOSS OF OUTSIDE INVESTORS

CRASHING GRAIN PRICIES

DRIVE TOWARDS AUTARKY

WWI CAUSED FURTHER DIVISIONS IN ITALY

TREMENDOUS LOSS OF LIVES OVER 1 MILLION WAR DEAD

MANY FELT THAT THE GAINS FROM THE TREATY OF LONDON WERE NOT EQUAL TO THE COSTS

POLITIC DIVISONS GREW

Faschism

1919

AS FRUSTATION WITH THE OUTCOME OF WWI GREW, MUSSOLINI ORGANIZED THE NATIONAL FASCIST PARTY IN ITALY

IDEOLOGY

PROMOTION OF NATIONALISM

A DICTATORSHIP IN A ONE PARTY STATE

GLORIFICATION OF WAR

ANTI-COMMUNIST

ANTI-INTERNATIONALIST

growth in Italy:

ANGER OVER THE WAR SETTLEMENTS

MUTILATED VICTORY GABRIELE DE’NUZIO

ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HIGH UNEMPLOYMENT

US RESTRICTIONS ON IMMIGRTATIONS LEAVING THE POOR UNABLE TO EMIGRATE

RISE OF COMMUNIST PARTIES

LIBERAL DEMOCRATIC GOV. WEAK

1919 FUIME

IN 1919 FASCIST PARTY WAS A MIX OF LEFT AND RIGHT WING POLICIES

IDEA WAS TO HAVE MASS APPEAL

FASCIST 1921-1922 FOCUS ON OPPOSING SOCIALIST AND COMMUNIST

NATIONAL FASCIST PARTY (PNF) HAD A CONCRETE RIGHT WING PLATFORM

APPEAL TO CAPITALIST

APPEAL TO CATHOLIC CHURCH: BANNING DIVORCE, BETTER TREATMENT OF THE POOR

FROM 1921 MUSSOLINI’S SPEECHES AND ARTICLES CONCENTRATED ON WHAT FASCISM WAS AGAINST – SOCIALISM AND LIBERALISM- RATHER THAN WHAT IT WAS FOR.

MUSSOLINI STRESSED THAT FASCISM IS COMMITTED TO STRONG GOVERNMENT, PATRIOTISM, AND IMPERIAL EXPANSION.

THE ECONOMIC ELITES AND EMERGING FASCISM, 1921-22

LABOR UNREST AND STRIKES, FASCIST WOULD PLAY ON THIS AND USE VIOLENCE TO END LABOR DISTRUPTIONS

THE GROWING ALLIANCE WITH INDUSTRIALISTS, BANKERS AND LANDOWNERS BEGAN BUILDING OF A MASS BASE FOR MUSSOLINI’S PARTY; SUPPORTERS WERE UNITED BY THEIR HATRED OF SOCIALISTS AND THEIR BELIEF IN VIOLENT ACTION RATHER THAN BY ANY COHERENT POLITICAL IDEOLOGY.

FROM 1921, MUSSOLINI HAD HOPES OF ACHIEVING REAL POWER; HE REALIZED THAT HE NEEDED TO CONVINCE HIS SUPPORTERS OF THREE THINGS:

THAT THE LIBERALS WERE FINISHED AS AN EFFECTIVE POLITICAL FORCE

THAT THERE WAS A REAL THREAT OF SOCIALIST REVOLUTION

ONLY THE FASCISTS WERE STRONG

Causes of Expansionism

1. League of Nations

WEAK- WHY?

• COLLECTIVE SECURITY- FAIL

GB- no military build up/cautious alliances

APPEASEMENT

FR- huge military-isolate Germany 

US- Never joined- Isolation

2. Great Depression- 

Economic Impact - Mass unemployment (USA, Germany, GB)

                    HUGE decrease in trade 

• TRADE BARRIERS

• IMPERIAL PREFERENCE (GB/FR) 

           Sent message good to have EMPIRE to provide resources needed  

US and USSR could isolate had most resources needed. Led E/C European countries to gravitate toward Germany - “LEBENSRAUM” -Living Space                          

Political Impact- 

Crisis leads people to desire change

-USA- Democratic (party) domination

-GB- Labour party- “National” Gov’t Coalition -Italy/Germany- Fascism (Industrialists)(Imperialism)

FEAR- COMMUNISM

Great Depression gave Italy more “freedom” in foreign policy- “ITALIAN EMPIRE” 

• Couldn’t Export as much because of barriers – closer relationship with Eastern European countries

• Less fear of sanctions because not trading much with US/GB/FR (tariffs/isolation/imperial preference)

• Gov’t control of industry - Corporate State

• Deficit Spending - led to military build up and more consumer spending

  • This made Italy able to have the equipment and means to start empire building
    

Key Events

Mussolini’s Foreign Policy

• Strategies:

1920s – Musso wants to project strength and push for territory in Balkans and Africa. This is for domestic political reasons. However, he proceeds cautiously because Italy is weak and he also wants to be seen as a great peacemaker and statesman.

1930s – Mussolini’s diplomacy became more assertive and rigid. He formed closer ties with Hitler in the Rome-Berlin Axis and the Pact of Steel. Mussolini promoted anti-French and anti￾Semitic sentiments. He found cooperation with the Allied powers futile as that did not help him gain any territory.

• Goals:

  • Build an empire and gain “spazio vitale” (living space) especially in Africa

  • Increase in national pride (nationalism grew as Italians wanted Italy to restore its “past glory” and respect in the international lens.

  • Consolidate domestic support for the empire. Mussolini wanted Italy to be a self-sufficient autarky and support itself as a militarist state. This was also a product of increased nationalism.

  • Revise the post-war settlements of 1919-20. This stemmed from the disappointment over the Treaty of Versailles.

  • Foster the spread of fascism in other countries.

  • Dominate the Balkans and the Mediterranean. Mussolini wanted control of the Mediterranean to achieve the second Roman Empire. Mussolini viewed Italy being “trapped” in the Mediterranean by the British on the west and by the Turks on the East. He wanted to change Italy’s status in the Mediterranean. As for the Balkans, Mussolini wanted to gain territory in the region and undermine the pre-existing French influence.

1920’s - OPPORTUNISTS 

Small incidents- “covert undeclared war where could”

Cautious to not upset other nations and lose trade

• Corfu- Italian military officer killed- Italy invade

• Fiume- Dispute with Yugoslavia

• Corsica - Island of France where people had more in common with Italy (most cautious - weak military/economy)

• African Empire- Libya-Eritrea-Somalia (more of burden, didn’t add anything of value)

Corfu Affair (1923)

Results: Italy invades Greek island, forced to withdraw by L of N, but forced Greece to pay “compensation”

Popular in Italy – but Musso forced to withdraw by L of N. Looks bad, weak.

Pact of Rome (1924)

Results: After Mussolini sent a military commander to rule over Fiume, the Yugoslavs shortly gave in and ceded the port of Fiume to Italy.

Mussolini wanted to undermine the French influence in Yugoslavia. He promoted nationalism among ethnic groups to destabilize the country. Rifts between Italy and France widened.

Locarno Pact (1925)

• Germany and France agree to respect their border and maintain status quo from Treaty of Versailles.

• Results: Italy (with the UK) was a guarantor of the treaty. If one side invaded the other, Italy was committed to stepping in to enforce treaty. Mussolini hosted conference to boost his prestige.

Tirana Pact (1926)

Results: Ahmed Zog, an Italian backed leader, took power in Albania in 1924. In 1926, the pact was signed to confirm that Albania was an Italian protectorate state.

An alliance was formed between Italy and Albania, who would also join the Axis powers eventually alongside Italy.

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

• More than 60 countries, including Italy, sign a pact denouncing war as a

  method of solving disputes.

• Results: Mussolini wanted to present himself as a mediator in Western Europe, even though he funded right-wing groups in Germany and trained German pilots, violating the Treaty of Versailles.

The Four Power Pact (1933)

• Britain, Germany, Italy and Germany signed the pact and vowed to adhere to the convention of the League of Nations, the Locarno Treaties and the Kellogg-Briand Pact.

• Results: The objective was to allow the European powers for “Great Power” Cooperation, though it did not have the same impact. Italians viewed this as a success for Mussolini.

1934- Still trying to keep Germany isolated with France

• Wanted Austria to be a buffer between Italy and Germany 

• Austrian Nazi party assassinated Austrian dictator

• Wanted to merge Germany and Austria

• Threatened to use force to keep them independent - moved Italian troops to the border

• Hitler didn’t have a strong military so he backed down

• Demonstration of Mussolini’s strength, made him confident

• Stresa Front – Britain, France, Italy formed a united front to oppose German actions in Austria and its remilitarization

African Empire - Libya, Eritrea, part of Somalia

• Poor, unimportant, no value to the economy

Dec. 1934 - WAL-WAL Incident  (Oasis near Somali border)

  Clash between Italian and Abyssinian troops 

          100 Abyssinian killed      2 Italians killed

Italy demand $100,000 and apology. Abyssinia appeal to LofN

Final Declaration of the Stresa Conference (1935)

• Italy, Britain, and France agreed to protect the independence of Austria

  and reaffirm the Locarno Treaties. They vowed to ensure no further

  changes in the European Settlement. This was violated when the Anglo-German naval agreement was signed in June, 1935.

• Results: This agreement was violated by Britain when it signed the Angle-German Naval agreement with Germany in June of 1935, without the consultations of other Stresa signatories. For Mussolini, this indicated that the Stresa agreement had ended and Italy no longer needed to abide by the terms of the agreement.

Invasion of Abyssinia (1935 – 1936)

                       Modern Italian forces DESTROY Abyssinian army

                            Bomb/ Gas 750,000 killed (civilians included)

                                Destroy crops, kill livestock, poison water

People resisted through guerilla attacks but all resistance met with violence / gas and executions for those helping the resistance

Originally, Mussolini had planned to annex Abyssinia in 1932. However, due to a clash between the Italian and Abyssinian forces in 1932, the plan was implemented in 1935. The ill-equipped Abyssinian forces were soon defeated by the Italian forces and the emperor of Abyssinia fled to Britain in 1936. Abyssinia became a part of Italian East Africa.

The victory in the war resulted in an increase in nationalism and Mussolini’s popularity. However, the League of Nations viewed Italy’s actions as aggressive and imposed economic sanction of the country. Italy’s budget deficit grew from 2.5 billion to 16 billion lire, forcing Italy to trade more frequently with Germany. Germany and Italy grew closer while the rifts between Britain/France and Italy were widened.

1936 - Italian East Africa formed (Somalia, Eritrea, Abyssinia)

Rome-Berlin Axis (1936)

• Germany and Italy signed a formal alliance, because Germany was a much stronger country they called most of the shots. This act outlined Italy’s foreign policies

October 1936 - Rome-Berlin Axis - Outlined foreign policies

Italy was the weaker country - Germany called the shots

Dec 1937 - Italy officially leaves League of Nation

Anti-Comintern Pact (1937)

• Italy joined the pact with Germany and Japan to ensure safeguards

  against the Soviet Union or communism in general. The pact was signed against the Comintern (an international association of communist parties).

• Results: Italy was now a part of the Axis powers. The rifts between Italy and Britain and France grew so much that Italy left the League of Nations in 1937. Italy also shifted its foreign policy regarding Austria –Mussolini refused to protect Austria from Germany and ultimately accepted the German annexation of Austria (Anschluss) in 1938.

Munich Pact (1938)

• Mussolini wanted to be seen as the mediator in the rising tensions

  between Britain and Germany. When Chamberlain, the British PM, failed to secure a deal with Hitler, Mussolini intervened to find a “solution”. Britain, France and Italy agreed to give away Sudetenland (a part

  of Czechoslovakia) to Germany. In March 1939, Hitler broke the Munich

  Pact and invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia.

• Results: Mussolini was hailed in Europe as the “peacemaker”. After observing the irresponsiveness of Britain and France towards Germany’s expansionist ambitions, Mussolini instructed the Italian parliament to demand the annexation of Corsica, Nice and Tunis from France. Mussolini believed that he could win a war against France with German support, as Britain was trying its best to stay out of any future conflict.

Spanish Civil War (1936 – 1939)

• Mussolini sent Italian forces to Spain to fight for Franco’s Nationalists against the Republic left-wing government. Mussolini wanted his popularity to further grow in Italy, prevent communism from spreading in Spain and undermine the French influence on the left-wing Spanish government.

• Results: Although Franco’s forces defeated the Republican forces in 1939, the war further depleted Italy’s resources and further cemented its ties with

  Germany. Spain did not become an Italian satellite state and instead remained independent. The war had left Italy in no shape of fighting another war – a reality that Mussolini failed to acknowledge and eventually joined the Axis powers in WW2.

Support Gen. Francisco Franco (Nationalist/Fascist)

     WHY? Want France to get involved so they could get Corsica and other parts of France when they won - didn’t happen

HUGE waste of money, troops and supplies that Italy didn’t have

(1936-38 Germany annex Austria, Sudetenland, Czech

--Italy resources depleted but feeling pressure- ALBANIA)

Invasion of Albania (April 1939)

1931-39 Invasion of Albania

Try to keep Greece from taking it

“PROTECTOR” 

Albania King Zog I- Close Italian Schools/remove military

Mussolini suspend loans bankrupt Albania

Appeal to L of N - Reading the letter is all they did; FR no financial help and asked for land in exchange for support

April 1939 - Italy send 30,000 troops - Albania conquered

Results: Even though Albania was an Italian satellite state, Mussolini wanted to assert Italy’s power to counter Germany’s successes in gaining territory. On April 7th, 1939, the Italian forces invaded Albania after the King, Ahmed Zog, refused to surrender to Mussolini. The Albanian forces were defeated shortly and Zog fed to Greece with his family. The Italians set up a fascist government under Shefqet Verlaci and Albania was now a part of the Italian Kingdom.

Albania had to withdraw from the League of Nations and would eventually enter the second world war as an Axis power. Italy would use Albania as a base from which it will launch its invasion of Greece in 1940.

Pact of Steel (May 939)

• A pact signed between Italy and Germany who vowed to cooperate

  economically and militarily against Britain and France.

• Economic cooperation, military support in case of war

• Italy not prepared for war (weak economy, wasted military due to Abyssinia and Spain) and would need years to prepare

• Germany wanted war in 1939 and would need to give materials but offered no assistance and let them sit out the fight

• Pact was a means of keeping Mussolini under Hitler’s thumb and keep them from joining the Allies

• Also to deter French action - Italy was a buffer between France and Germany

• Results: The Pact accentuated the “unity” between Italy and Germany. However, Germany also signed a pact with the Soviet Union (Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact in 1939) to ensure that Germany did not have to fight on two fronts should a war broke out.

Declaration of War on Britain and France (1940)

• In June 1940, Italy declared war against Britain and France and joined the Axis powers.

• Results: After remaining a non-belligerent power when the War broke out in September 1939, Mussolini wanted to actively join the War, mainly to promote his fascist ideology and preserve Italy’s image as a major European power. Mussolini also wanted favours from Germany in a post-war Europe if Germany had won the war. However, Italy’s motives for joining the war

  were mainly economic. After Britain blockaded all German coal ports (Italy had became dependent on German coal), Italy declared war on Britain and

  France in 1940.

International Response to Italian Expansion

League of Nations response to African Empire

L of N --“small incident neither at fault” / Italy prepare to invade

Britain and France didn’t want to ruin relationship - allowed it

L of N condemn invasion- 

• Economic Sanctions - the least they could do

• no oil embargo, closure of Suez Canal, or threat of war

Emperor Haile Selassie escape to UK- Appeal to L of N

Did not ask for troops but SUPPLIES/WEAPONS

Consequences for L of N-- 

• Collective Security fail--GB/FR would look out for own interests

  • More worried about Germany

  • Neither prepared to fight a war, especially in Africa

  • Hoare-Laval Plan - Give Italy ⅔, Give Abyssinia corridor to sea – plan was leaked and people didn’t like it – it was abandoned

• No influence - shown as WEAK - sanctions and diplomatic isolation drove Italy closer to Germany

United States

• Tried to convince Mussolini not to invade - failed

• Neutrality Acts - No sale of weapons, ammunition, or supplies to EITHER side - only hurts Abyssinia and means Italy wins

• Refuse to formally recognize new Italian East Africa

USSR

• Couldn’t intervene due to troubles with industrialization

• Called Italy out - Said Abyssinian independence should be guaranteed by the League

• Total embargo with Italy - no trade

Italy Response:

• Economy was weaker due to trade restrictions

• Sought more trade with eastern and central Europe

• Economy was more focused on rearmament (war was costly)

• Italy engaged less in diplomacy with the West - more independence

• Italy got friendly with Germany

Response to Albania:

GB/FR preoccupied with Germany- (fear over Poland situation - 1939 WAR)

Greece/Yugoslavia fear Italy but wanted land too and saw an opportunity to grab some as well

L of N- proved ineffective - Italy was not a member so was ignored

USSR only one to protest Italy’s action - Verbal condemnation

Hoare-Laval Pact destroyed the legitimacy of the LoN

Attention drawn away from Abyssinia when Hitler remilitarized Rhineland in 1936; France willing to let Mussolini complete his conquest in Africa as long as he stands strong against Hitler

Selassie fled Abyssinia and capital Addis Ababa fell to Italian forces

International response had profound effect on European diplomacy – fatally undermined the LoN as a credible body and it ended the Stresa Front