Financial Statements

• General purpose reports that provide financial information about the reporting entity’s [business] economic resources [assets], claims against the entity [liabilities and owner’s equity], and changes in those economic resources and claims [revenues, expenses, owner’s capital, owner’s drawings] that is useful to primary users in making decisions relating to providing resources to the entity

• To provide financial information about the reporting entity’s assets, liabilities, equity, revenues, and expenses that is useful to users of financial statements in assessing the prospects for future net cash inflows to the reporting entity and in assessing management’s stewardship of the entity’s economic resources (includes protecting the company’s assets against price changes and technological changes as well as compliance with laws, regulations, and contracts)

• only includes financial information about the reporting entity (scope)

• records financial information from a specified period of time

  • Information about transactions and other events that have occurred after the end of the reporting period is provided if that information is necessary to meet the objective of financial statements

• From the perspective of the reporting entity

Elements of Financial Statements

[FOUND IN THE BALANCE SHEET (STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL POSITION)]

1. Assets

   • Economic resource

     • the right that has the potential to produce economic benefits

   • Control

     • the present ability to direct the use of the economic resource and obtain the economic benefits that may flow from it

       • no other party controls that asset

       • the right to deploy that asset in its activities

       • ability to enforce legal rights on that asset

   • A present economic resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events

2. Liabilities

   • Claims of other entities

   • A present obligation of the entity to transfer an economic resource

     as a result of past events

   • Obligation

     • a duty or responsibility that an entity has no practical ability to avoid and owed to another party/parties (e.g., person, another entity, a group of people / a group of entities, society at large)

   • Transfer an economic resource

     • pay cash

     • deliver goods or provide services

     • exchange economic resources with another party on unfavourable terms (E.g., Forwards; Options)

     • transfer an economic resource if a specified uncertain future event occurs

     • Issue a financial instrument if that financial instrument will oblige the entity to transfer an economic recourse

   • Result of past events

     • the entity has already obtained economic benefits or taken an action

     • the entity will or may have to transfer an economic resource that it would not otherwise have had to transfer

3. Owner’s Equity

   • Claims of owners

   • The residual interest in the assets of the entity after deducting all its liabilities

   • Owner’s financial interest in a business

   • Net worth

[CHANGES IN ECONOMIC RESOURCES | FOUND IN INCOME STATEMENTS (STATEMENT OF PROFIT OR LOSS)]

1. Income/Revenue

   • Increases in assets, or decreases in liabilities, that result in increases in equity, other than those relating to contributions from holders of equity claims

2. Expenses

   • Decreases in assets, or increases in liabilities, that result in decreases in equity, other than those relating to distributions to holders of equity claims

*Other changes in economic resources and claims

• Contributions from holder/s of equity claims, and distributions to them

• Exchanges of assets or liabilities that do not result in increases or decreases in equity

Statement of Financial Position

• A position statement that reports the financial condition (financial standing; financial strength) of an entity at the end of the period and presents an organized list of assets, liabilities, and equity

• Provides information useful to assess the entity’s future cash flows, liquidity, and long-term solvency

• limitations:

  • The entity's reported book value (assets minus liabilities) will not directly measure the company’s market value (in a public corporation, this is current market price x number of shares issued)

  • Many assets are measured at their historical costs rather than their fair values

  • Many aspects of a company may represent valuable resources but are not recorded as assets

    • Product knowledge

    • Experienced management team

    • Trained employees

    • Loyal customer relationships

• FORMS:

  1. Report Form

     

  2. Account Form

     

*Operating Cycle

• time between the acquisition of assets for processing and their realisation in cash or cash equivalents

  1. Use cash to acquire inventory

  2. Prepare inventory for sale to customers

     (Including the production process for manufacturing business)

  3. Deliver inventory to customer

  4. Collect cash from customer

• ELEMENTS:

  1. Assets

     1. Current Assets

        • assets that are expected to be realized (converted to cash) or intended to be sold or to be consumed within the entity’s normal operating cycle

        • held primarily for the purpose of trading

        • expected to be realized within twelve months after the reporting period

        • cash or cash equivalent unless the asset is restricted from being exchanged or used to settle a liability for at least twelve months after the reporting period

          1. Cash and Cash Equivalents

             1. Cash

                • cash on hand and in banks that is available for use in the operations of the business

             2. Cash equivalents

                • highly liquid investments that can be quickly converted into cash, not subject to significant risk of

                  changes in value, and must be held for the purpose of ‘meeting short-term cash commitments’

                  • Examples include money market funds, such as:

                    • Investment in treasury bills (short-term debt instruments of government)

                    • Investment in commercial papers (short-term debt instruments of corporations)

                    • Investment in certificate of deposits (short-term debt instruments of banks)

          2. Trade and Other Receivables

             1. Trade receivable / Accounts receivable

                • receivable resulting from a company’s normal trade, that is, providing services or selling goods on account [on credit; on charge account; on open-account credit]

             2. Notes receivable

                • receivable with a written promissory note from another party from a company’s normal trade, usually requiring an additional receipt of explicit interest

             3. Other receivables

                1. Advances to employees

                   • advances by the company to employees

                2. Loans receivable

                   • loans given by by the company to individuals and other entities

                3. Accrued revenue

                   • revenue already earned, but not yet received (recorded as part of adjusting entries at period-end)

          3. Inventory

             • encompass goods that are:

               • purchased and held for resale

                 • merchandise purchased by a retailer and held for resale [Merchandise Inventory]

                 • land and other property held for resale

               • raw materials and factory supplies awaiting use in the production process

               • work in progress being produced by the entity

               • finished goods produced

          4. Prepaid Expense [Deferred expense]

             • expense paid in advance, thus creating benefits, but not yet used

             • includes office supplies

     2. Non-current Assets

        • residual by definition, an entity shall classify all other assets as non-current

          1. Property, plant, and equipment

             • tangible items that are held for use in the production or supply of goods or services, for rental to others (except for land and building), or for administrative purposes

             • are expected to be used during more than one period

             • (e.g., Land, Land improvements, Building, Machinery, Vehicles, Furniture and fixtures, Fittings, Office equipment, Bearer plants)

  2. Liabilities

     1. Current Liabilities

        • liabilities that are expected to be settled in the entity’s normal operating cycle

        • owed primarily for the purpose of trading

        • are due to be settled within twelve months after the reporting period

        • do not have the right at the end of the reporting period to defer settlement of the liability for at least twelve months after the reporting period

          1. Trade and other payables

             1. Trade payable / Accounts payable

                • payable resulting from a company’s normal trade, that is, buying assets and goods on account [on credit; on charge account; on open-account credit]

             2. Notes payable

                • payable with a written promise to pay cash at some future date (legal IOUs), usually requiring an additional payment of explicit interest

             3. Other payables

                1. Accrued expense

                   • expense already used, but not yet paid (recorded as part of adjusting entries at period-end)

          2. Loans payable – current portion

             • a portion of long-term Loans Payable that is payable within the next year

          3. Unearned Revenue [Deferred revenue]

             • revenue received in advance, but not yet earned

     2. Non-Current Liabilities

        • residual by definition, an entity shall classify all other liabilities that are not current as non-current

          1. Loans payable – noncurrent portion

             • long-term Loans Payable that is not yet due within the next year

          2. Long-term notes payable

             • long-term promissory notes that is not yet due within the next year

          3. Mortgage payable

             • long-term promissory note secured by an asset whose title is pledged to the lender

  3. Owner’s Equity

*Deferrals and Accruals

*Basic Accounting Equation

Statement of Profit & Loss

• A change statement that summarizes the profit-generating transactions that changes the owner’s equity for the period and reports an entity’s financial performance, that is, its net profit or net loss, for the period

• Provides information useful to assess the entity’s profitability, return on owner’s investment, its operations and various functions and predicting future expenses and cash outflows

• FORMS:

  1. Nature of expense method

     • Classifies expenses within profit or loss according to their nature

  2. Function of expense method

     • Classifies expenses by their function within the entity

       • Cost of sales

         • cost of providing service/cost of goods sold

       • Distribution cost

         • expenses related to selling and distributing the goods to the customers

       • Administrative costs

         • expenses related to the general administration of the business

       • Finance costs

         • interest expense

• ELEMENTS:

  1. Income

     • Earnings of an entity

     • Inflow of resources resulting from services provided or goods sold to customers

     • Increases in assets, or decreases in liabilities, that result in increases in equity, other than those relating to

       contributions from holders of equity claims

       1. Service revenue/Professional fees

          • revenue from services provided to clients

       2. Sales

          • revenue from sale of goods to customers

       3. Other income

          • revenue from sources other than the main line of business

            1. Interest income

            2. Rent income

            3. Commissions income

            4. Income from investments

            5. Gain on sale of plant, property, equipment item

  2. Expenses

     • Outflow of resources incurred for generating revenues

     • Decreases in assets, or increases in liabilities, that result in decreases in equity, other than those relating to distributions to holders of equity claims

       1. Delivery expense

       2. Insurance expense

       3. Interest expense

       4. Marketing expense (advertising, promotion)

       5. Office supplies expense

       6. Professional fees (accounting, audit, legal)

       7. Rent expense

       8. Repair & maintenance expense

       9. Representation & entertainment expense

       10. Salaries & wages expense

       11. Employee benefits

       12. Taxes & licenses expense

       13. Transportation & travel expense

       14. Utilities expense

       15. Miscellaneous expenses / Other expenses / Sundry expenses

       16. Bad debts expense

       17. Doubtful debts expense

       18. Depreciation expense

Statement of Changes in Equity

• A change statement that discloses the events that caused the owner’s equity to change for the period

• Provides information useful to understand the transactions with owners in their capacity as owners, showing separately contributions by and distributions to owners

• ITEMS AFFECTING EQUITY:

  1. Income [revenues] and expenses

  2. Contributions [investment] by owner

     1. Owner’s capital

        • financial investment of the owner

          1. Cash

          2. Other assets

             • Recorded at its fair market value at the time of investment

  3. Distributions to [withdrawal by] owner

     1. Owner’s drawings

        • temporary withdrawal of the profit of the business

Capital

1. Capital / Owner’s capital

   • financial investment of the owner

2. Capital employed

   • the long-term source of financing, which includes both the capital of the owner and non-current liabilities

3. Working capital

   • refers to net current assets (Current assets minus Current liabilities)

4. Capital expenditures

   • expenditures for purchase of non-current assets

5. Capital budgeting

   • the process of investment appraisal

Expanded Accounting Equation

Statement of Cash Flows

• A change statement disclosing the events that caused cash to change for the period

• Provides information useful to assess the entity’s ability to generate cash and cash equivalents and to utilize those cash flows

Notes to Financial Statements

• present information about the basis of preparation of the financial statements and the specific accounting policies used

• disclose the information required by IFRSs that is not presented elsewhere in the financial statements

• provide information that is not presented elsewhere in the financial statements, but is relevant to an understanding of any of them