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Retrieval cues are words, and meanings encoded at the same time as a new memory
Encoding specificity occurs when physical surroundings become encoded as retrieval cues for specific memories
State-dependent learning occurs when physiological or psychological states become encoded as retrieval cues for memories formed while in those states
Recall is a type of memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be " pulled " out of memory with few or no cues, whereas recognition involves matching information with stored images or facts
The serial position effect, or primacy or recency effect, occurs when the first items and the last items in a list of information are recalled more efficiently than items n the middle of the list
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Classic Studies in Psychology: Elizabeth Loftus and Eyewitnesses Loftus and others have found that people constantly update and revise their memories of events Part of this revision may include adding information acquired later to a previous memory. That later information may also be in error, further
contaminating the earlier memory
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Memories are reconstructed from the various bits of information that have been stored away in different places at the time of encoding in a process called constructive processing
Hindsight bias occurs when people falsely believe that they knew the outcome of some event because they have included knowledge of the event's true outcome into their memories of the event itself
The misinformation effect refers to the tendency of people who are asked misleading questions or given misleading information to incorporate that information into their memories of a particular event
Rather than improving memory retrieval, hypnosis makes the creation of false memories more likely
False memory syndrome is the creation of false or inaccurate memories through suggestion, especially while hypnotized
Pezdek and colleagues assert that false memories are more likely to be formed for plausible false events than for implausible ones
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Ebbinghaus found that information is mostly lost within 1 hour after learning and then gradually fades away. This is known as the curve of forgetting
Some " forgetting " is actually a failure to encode information. Memory trace decay theory assumes the presence of a physical memory trace that decays with disuse over time
Forgetting in LTM is most likely due to proactive or retroactive interference
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