Chapter 15 and Climate Change

Chapter 15: Bias, Confounding and Interactions 

Define, explain, and recognize the following in examples: 

Confounding 
A mix-up between the exposure and another factor that also affects the outcome. 

Interactions 
When the effect of one factor changes depending on another factor. 

Selection Bias 
When the people included in the study are not representative of the whole population. 

Information Bias 
Errors in collecting or recording data. 

Measurement Bias 
A type of information bias where tools or methods give wrong measurements. 

Misclassification Bias 
A type of information bias where people are put into the wrong group. 

Web of Causation 
A model showing how many different factors all link together to cause disease. 

Synergism (Positive Interactions) 
Two factors work together to increase the effect. 

Antagonism (Negative Interactions) 
One factor weakens or cancels out the effect of another.  

Q: What is selection bias and how can you prevent this? 
A: It's when the study group doesn’t represent the target population. Prevent it by using random selection and making sure everyone has an equal chance of being in the study. 

Q: What is information bias and how can you prevent this? 
A: It's when there's an error in collecting data. Prevent it by training data collectors, using good tools, and checking for accuracy 

Q: What is confounding and how do you handle this in a study? 
A: It’s when another variable is mixed up with the one you're studying and affects the result. Handle it by randomizing, matching, or adjusting for it in the analysis (e.g., stratification or regression) 

Q: What are interactions and how do we determine their presence or absence in a study? 
A: Interactions happen when one factor’s effect depends on another. Look for them by stratifying your data or including interaction terms in regression models. 

Q: What are the policy implications of interactions? 
A: Interactions help target public health actions. For example, if two risk factors combined are especially harmful, you might focus prevention on people with both. 

Climate Change and Human Health 

Answer/explain the following: 

What are greenhouse gases and what are their sources? 
Greenhouse gases trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere. Common sources include burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas), cars, factories, and agriculture. 

How do greenhouse gases impact global temperatures? 
They hold in heat from the sun, causing Earth's temperature to rise over time. 

Why should we be worried that the planet has warmed by 2°F since the 1800s? 
Even a small increase in temperature leads to big changes, like stronger storms, heatwaves, and melting ice. 

What are the climate consequences of global warming? 
More extreme weather, rising sea levels, wildfires, droughts, and damage to ecosystems. 

How do we know that climate change is really happening? 
Scientists track rising global temperatures, melting glaciers, changing rainfall, and more heat records. 

How do we know climate change is caused by humans? 
The increase in carbon dioxide and other gases matches human activities like burning fuel and cutting forests. 

What are the health implications of climate change? 
It increases heat-related illnesses, asthma, disease spread, and food and water shortages. 

What will it cost to take action on climate change versus doing nothing? 
Taking action costs money, but doing nothing could lead to much greater costs from disasters, damage, and health issues. 

What can individuals and communities do to reduce global warming? 
Use less energy, drive less, recycle, support clean energy, and plant trees. 

What are some mitigation efforts to address climate change and its effects on human health? 
Switch to renewable energy, improve public transportation, make buildings energy efficient, prepare for heatwaves and floods, and protect air and water quality.