Time Period 4 (1800-1848)
Time Period 4 Study Guide (1800 - 1848)
This period highlights westward expansion, nationalism, federal vs. state power, and sectionalism. Economic development, social reforms, and Native displacement shaped the U.S., setting the stage for the antebellum era and conflicts leading to the Civil War.
Chapter 7: The Jeffersonian Era (1800–1816)
Political Context
Election of 1800: Known as the “Revolution of 1800,” Jefferson’s victory marked the first peaceful transition of power between parties in U.S. history.
Tie between Jefferson and Aaron Burr resolved in the House of Representatives.
Established the principle that political power could change hands without violence—a cornerstone of American democracy.
Democratic-Republican Policies:
Believed in limited federal government and strong state governments.
Cut military spending and reduced national debt.
Reversed some Federalist policies (e.g., excise taxes) but retained national banks.
Judiciary & Court Conflicts
Judiciary Act of 1801 (“Midnight Judges”):
Passed by Federalists to retain control of the judiciary.
Led to Marbury v. Madison (1803), which established judicial review, empowering the Supreme Court to declare federal laws unconstitutional.
Foreign Policy
Louisiana Purchase (1803):
Jefferson bought the Louisiana Territory from France for $15 million.
Doubled U.S. territory; raised constitutional debate (Jefferson was strict constructionist but justified using treaty-making power).
Embargo Act (1807):
Banned U.S. exports to Britain and France to avoid war during the Napoleonic Wars.
Backfired economically—especially in New England, which relied on trade.
Non-Intercourse Act (1809):
Replaced Embargo Act; trade prohibited only with Britain and France.
Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810):
Attempted to use trade to incentivize Britain or France to respect U.S. neutrality.
Chapter 8: Varieties of American Nationalism (1815–1828)
Post-War of 1812 Nationalism
War of 1812:
Causes: British impressment of U.S. sailors, interference with trade, support for Native resistance in the Northwest.
Key Battles: Burning of Washington, Battle of New Orleans (Andrew Jackson became a hero).
Resulted in renewed nationalism and decline of the Federalist Party.
Economic Nationalism
Tariff of 1816: First protective tariff to protect U.S. manufacturers from European competition.
Henry Clay’s American System:
Protective tariffs to fund national infrastructure.
National Bank to stabilize currency.
Internal improvements: roads, canals, transportation for commerce.
Judicial Nationalism (John Marshall Court)
Fletcher v. Peck (1810):
The State of Georgia tried to cancel a land contract. The court ruled states cannot invalidate contracts.
Precedent: Federal protection of private contracts; strengthened economic stability.
Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819):
New Hampshire tried to alter private college charter.
The court ruled the state could not interfere with private charters.
Significance: Protected corporations and encouraged investment.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819):
Maryland attempted to tax the Second Bank of U.S.
The court ruled federal laws supreme over state laws; Congress has implied powers.
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824):
NY granted a steamboat monopoly. The court ruled that only the federal government regulates interstate commerce.
Impact: Strengthened federal economic power; commerce clause precedent.
Sectionalism Emerges
Missouri Compromise (1820):
Missouri = slave state, Maine = free state; slavery prohibited north of 36°30′ line.
Temporarily eased sectional tensions but foreshadowed future disputes over slavery.
Chapter 9: Jacksonian America (1828–1848)
Jacksonian Democracy
Expanded suffrage to all white males; reduced property qualifications.
Spoils system: Rewarded political supporters with jobs.
Focused on the “common man” rather than elite leadership.
Opposed the Second Bank of the U.S.; promoted “hard money” policies.
Indian Removal & Native Conflicts
Indian Removal Act (1830): Authorized forced relocation west of Mississippi.
Worcester v. Georgia (1832): Court sided with Cherokee; Jackson ignored ruling.
Trail of Tears: Forced relocation resulted in thousands of deaths.
Economic Conflicts
Bank War: Jackson vetoed Second Bank recharter (1832).
Specific Circular (1836): Land purchases must be made with gold/silver → Panic of 1837.
Tariff of Abominations (1828): High tariff led to Nullification Crisis → resolved by Compromise Tariff (1833).
Political Landscape
Rise of Whig Party in opposition to Jackson.
Increased democratization of politics: party conventions, rallies, newspapers.
Chapter 10: America’s Economic Revolution
Market Revolution
Shift from self-sufficient farming → commercial economy.
Technological innovations:
Cotton gin (Eli Whitney) – revitalized slavery.
Interchangeable parts – increased industrial efficiency.
Transportation Revolution
National Road, Erie Canal, steamboats, railroads facilitated commerce and migration.
Linked North, South, and West economically and culturally.
Labor & Immigration
Early labor unions formed; strikes for better wages and working conditions.
Immigrant labor influx: Irish & Germans, mostly in Northern factories.
Chapter 11: Cotton, Slavery, and the Old South
Southern Economy
Cotton = King; plantation system depended on slave labor.
Domestic slave trade: Upper South → Deep South.
Regional specialization: South focused on cash crops; North industrializing.
Society & Culture
Planters, yeoman farmers, poor whites, enslaved Africans.
Social hierarchy centered on race and land ownership.
Resistance & Tension
Slave revolts (Nat Turner, 1831) inspired fear in the South.
The abolitionist movement gained traction in the North (Garrison, Douglass).
Chapter 12: Antebellum Culture and Reform
Second Great Awakening
Protestant revivalism emphasized personal salvation.
Inspired reform movements: temperance, abolition, education, and women’s rights.
Reform Movements
Abolition: William Lloyd Garrison, Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman.
Women’s Rights: Seneca Falls Convention (1848), Declaration of Sentiments.
Education: Horace Mann, push for public schools.
Labor: Early unions, strikes, calls for better working conditions.
Cultural Nationalism
Transcendentalism: Emerson, Thoreau emphasized individualism and moral conscience.
American literature and art reflected national identity.
Supreme Court Cases
1. Marbury v. Madison (1803)
Background: William Marbury was appointed a justice of the peace by outgoing President John Adams in the “midnight appointments,” but his commission wasn’t delivered. Jefferson’s Secretary of State, James Madison, refused to deliver it.
Issue: Could Marbury force delivery of his commission through the Supreme Court?
Decision / Precedent: Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that Marbury had a right to his commission, but the Court could not enforce it because the law Marbury relied on (Judiciary Act of 1789) was unconstitutional.
Significance: Established judicial review, giving the Supreme Court the power to declare federal laws unconstitutional.
Long-Term Impact: Solidified the Supreme Court as a co-equal branch of government. Today, judicial review allows courts to strike down laws that violate the Constitution.
2. Fletcher v. Peck (1810)
Background: Georgia legislature tried to cancel land contracts after a corrupt deal in the Yazoo land scandal.
Issue: Can a state invalidate contracts made legally under previous law?
Decision / Precedent: Supreme Court ruled contracts cannot be invalidated by states, even if the original deal involved corruption.
Significance: Strengthened the Contracts Clause of the Constitution, protecting private property and corporate contracts from state interference.
Long-Term Impact: Encouraged economic development and investment; businesses today rely on contract protections.
3. McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
Background: Maryland attempted to tax the Second Bank of the U.S. to challenge federal authority.
Issue: Could a state tax a federal institution, and did Congress have authority to create the bank?
Decision / Precedent: Court ruled federal government is supreme and Congress has implied powers under the Necessary and Proper Clause. States cannot interfere with federal actions.
Significance: Expanded federal power over states.
Long-Term Impact: Basis for implied powers of Congress and federal supremacy in conflicts with states.
4. Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819)
Background: New Hampshire wanted to alter Dartmouth College’s charter to make it public.
Issue: Could states modify private corporate charters?
Decision / Precedent: Supreme Court ruled states cannot interfere with private contracts.
Significance: Protected private institutions and corporations from state control.
Long-Term Impact: Encouraged economic investment; corporate law still relies on this precedent.
5. Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
Background: New York gave a steamboat company exclusive rights to operate in its waters. Federal law also allowed another operator.
Issue: Who controls interstate commerce—state or federal government?
Decision / Precedent: Federal government controls interstate commerce, not individual states.
Significance: Expanded federal authority over economic regulation.
Long-Term Impact: Foundation for modern commerce clause law, regulating trade across state lines today.
6. Johnson v. McIntosh (1823)
Background: Private citizens bought land from Native Americans, but the federal government also claimed authority to sell land.
Issue: Who legally owns the land?
Decision / Precedent: Only the federal government can purchase land from Native tribes.
Significance: Limited Native sovereignty and reinforced federal control over land acquisition.
Long-Term Impact: Basis for U.S. land law and the treatment of Native lands in treaties today.
7. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831)
Background: Cherokee Nation sued Georgia to stop the state from enforcing laws on their land.
Issue: Are Native tribes “foreign nations” with rights to sue in federal court?
Decision / Precedent: Supreme Court said Cherokee are “domestic dependent nations”—not foreign nations, but dependent on the federal government.
Significance: Limited Native sovereignty; tribes cannot fully challenge states in court.
Long-Term Impact: Set precedent for federal responsibility toward tribes but limited legal recourse.
8. Worcester v. Georgia (1832)
Background: Missionary Samuel Worcester was jailed for living on Cherokee land without state permission.
Issue: Can states regulate activity on Native lands?
Decision / Precedent: States cannot interfere with tribal lands; federal treaties govern.
Significance: Affirmed federal protection of Native lands over state authority.
Long-Term Impact: Modern tribal sovereignty laws are based on this principle, though enforcement historically was weak.
Conflicts
1. Political Conflicts
Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans: Debate over power of federal government, economy, and foreign relations.
Jackson vs. Congress / Executive Power: Jackson frequently used veto and executive authority, e.g., Bank War, challenging checks on presidential power.
Nullification Crisis (1832–33): South Carolina claimed states could nullify federal tariffs; resolved by compromise tariff and Force Bill, asserting federal authority while avoiding civil war.
2. Economic Conflicts
Tariff Battles: Tariff of 1816 (protective) vs. Tariff of Abominations (1828). The South opposed tariffs that benefited the North.
Bank War: Jackson opposed Second Bank of the U.S., viewing it as corrupt and elitist.
Panic of 1819 & 1837: Economic depressions caused by speculation, bank failures, and restrictive policies; highlighted instability in a developing capitalist economy.
3. Sectional / Territorial Conflicts
Missouri Compromise (1820): Balanced free and slave states; foreshadowed future sectional crisis over slavery.
Indian Removal Act / Trail of Tears: Forced relocation of tribes for agricultural expansion.
Westward Expansion: Settlement of Louisiana Territory, Texas, Oregon; led to tensions over slavery and Native displacement.
4. Social / Ideological Conflicts
Slavery Debate: Expansion of cotton economy intensified sectional divisions.
Abolition Movement: Garrison, Douglass, and other activists pushed moral arguments against slavery.
Women’s Rights: Seneca Falls (1848) demanded suffrage and equality.
Reform Movements: Temperance, education, labor rights, and mental health reforms reflected societal shifts.
5. Judicial Conflicts
Supreme Court consistently asserted federal power over states:
McCulloch v. Maryland – federal supremacy.
Gibbons v. Ogden – federal control of commerce.
Conflicts often arose when states resisted federal rulings (e.g., Worcester v. Georgia, ignored by Jackson).
6. Cultural Conflicts
Urban industrial North vs. agrarian South:
The North embraced industrialization, wage labor, urbanization.
The South relied on agriculture, slavery, and plantation economy.
Created clashing economic interests, social structures, and political priorities, foreshadowing sectional tension leading to the Civil War.
Wars & Conflicts
1. First Barbary War (1801–1805)
Background: The Barbary States of North Africa (Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli) demanded tribute from nations trading in the Mediterranean.
Cause: Jefferson refused to pay increased tribute to Tripoli and sent the U.S. Navy to protect American merchant ships.
Key Events: Naval battles in the Mediterranean, including raids on Tripoli harbor.
Significance:
First major overseas military action by the U.S. Navy.
Demonstrated U.S. willingness to protect commerce abroad.
Established a precedent for future U.S. involvement in international conflicts.
2. War of 1812 (1812–1815)
Background: Tensions with Britain persisted after the Revolutionary War; U.S. sailors were being impressed into the British Navy, and Britain interfered with American trade. Native Americans, supported by Britain, resisted U.S. expansion in the Northwest.
Causes:
British impressment of American sailors.
Interference with trade.
Desire to expand U.S. territory (especially into Canada).
Key Events:
Battles of Lake Erie, Thames, Washington D.C. burned, Battle of New Orleans (Andrew Jackson’s victory).
Outcome: Treaty of Ghent (1814) restored prewar boundaries; no territory changed hands.
Significance:
Boosted U.S. nationalism and identity.
Decline of the Federalist Party (seen as unpatriotic after the Hartford Convention).
Confirmed U.S. sovereignty and independence.
3. Tecumseh’s War (1811–1813)
Background: Shawnee leader Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa (The Prophet) attempted to form a Native American confederation to resist U.S. expansion into the Northwest Territory.
Cause: U.S. settlers encroaching on Native lands; desire to unite tribes against U.S. expansion.
Key Events: Battle of Tippecanoe (1811) and alliance with Britain during the War of 1812.
Significance:
Resistance ultimately failed, but it delayed U.S. westward expansion.
Heightened tension between Native Americans and settlers.
4. Black Hawk War (1832)
Background: Sauk and Fox tribes, led by Black Hawk, attempted to reclaim land in Illinois that was ceded under disputed treaties.
Key Events: Skirmishes with militia and settlers; defeat of Black Hawk’s forces.
Significance:
Demonstrated U.S. determination to remove Native Americans from the Midwest.
Opened land for white settlement.
5. Second Seminole War (1835–1842)
Background: U.S. sought to enforce the Indian Removal Act (1830) in Florida, targeting Seminole tribes.
Key Events: Guerrilla-style fighting in Florida swamps; Seminoles resisted relocation.
Significance:
Costly and prolonged war for the U.S.; many Seminoles were forcibly removed, but some remained.
Highlighted the human cost of Indian removal policies.
6. Texas Revolution (1835–1836)
Background: American settlers in Mexican Texas resisted Mexican control, especially regarding slavery and political autonomy.
Key Events: Battle of the Alamo, Battle of San Jacinto (Texian victory).
Outcome: Texas declared independence from Mexico; later annexed by the U.S. in 1845.
Significance:
Set the stage for westward expansion.
Intensified sectional conflict over slavery, as Texas would join as a slave state.
Treaties
1. Rush-Bagot Treaty (1817)
Background: Following the War of 1812, both the U.S. and Britain sought to reduce naval tensions on the Great Lakes.
Purpose: Demilitarized the Great Lakes, limiting warships and fortifications.
Significance:
Improved U.S.-British relations.
Established a precedent for peaceful border management and lasting U.S.-Canada relations.
2. Treaty of 1818
Background: U.S. and Britain needed to clarify northern borders after the War of 1812.
Purpose: Set U.S.-Canada border at the 49th parallel; allowed joint occupation of Oregon Territory for 10 years.
Significance:
Avoided conflict over western territories.
Encouraged westward settlement and expansion.
3. Adams-Onís Treaty (1819)
Background: Spain was unable to control Florida and its Native and runaway slave population.
Purpose: Spain ceded Florida to the U.S.; U.S. renounced claims to Texas.
Significance:
Clarified southern and western boundaries.
Reduced U.S.-Spanish territorial disputes.
4. Convention of 1818
Background: Negotiation between U.S. and Britain regarding Canada and western territories.
Purpose: Confirmed 49th parallel as northern border; allowed shared control of Oregon.
Significance: Peaceful resolution of territorial claims; encouraged western migration.
5. Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842)
Background: Boundary disputes between Maine and Canada escalated after lumber conflicts.
Purpose: Settled border disputes; divided contested land.
Significance:
Strengthened U.S.-British relations.
Prevented potential military conflict in the Northeast.
6. Treaty of Ghent (1814)
Background: Ended War of 1812 between the U.S. and Britain.
Purpose: Restored prewar boundaries; no territory exchanged.
Significance:
Symbolically ended hostilities and confirmed U.S. independence.
Encouraged nationalism and economic recovery.
Expeditions (1804–1840s)
1. Lewis & Clark Expedition (1804–1806)
Background: After the Louisiana Purchase (1803), Jefferson wanted to explore the new territory and assert U.S. presence.
Purpose:
Map and document the Louisiana Territory.
Establish trade and diplomatic relations with Native Americans.
Conduct scientific studies: plants, animals, geography.
Significance:
Provided valuable maps and knowledge of western territories.
Encouraged westward migration and settlement.
Strengthened U.S. claims to Oregon and the Pacific Northwest.
2. Stephen H. Long Expedition (1819–1820)
Background: U.S. government sent Long to explore the central Great Plains.
Purpose: Assess lands for settlement and scientific observation.
Findings: Called the Great Plains the “Great American Desert.”
Significance:
Discouraged early settlement of the Plains.
Highlighted the need for westward expansion to fertile lands further west.
Contributed to understanding geography and natural resources.
3. John C. Fremont (1840s)
Background: Explorer and military officer; mapped western territories.
Purpose: Survey Oregon, California, and other western lands; collect scientific data.
Significance:
His maps guided settlers along westward routes.
Supported U.S. claims to western lands during territorial expansion.
Played a role in the Manifest Destiny movement.
4. Oregon Trail
Background: Main route for settlers moving west from Missouri to Oregon and California.
Purpose: Facilitate migration and settlement in the Northwest.
Significance:
Enabled thousands of Americans to settle western territories.
Encouraged economic growth through farming and trade.
Increased tensions with Native Americans and Mexican authorities.
Key Legislation & Policies
Key Compromises
1. Missouri Compromise (1820)
Purpose: Maintain balance in Congress between slave and free states. Missouri = slave state, Maine = free state; slavery prohibited north of 36°30′.
Significance:
Temporarily reduced sectional tension.
Set precedent for legislative balancing of free/slave states.
Highlighted growing sectionalism, foreshadowing future conflicts.
2. Compromise Tariff (1833)
Purpose: Gradually reduce Tariff of Abominations (1828) to satisfy Southern opposition.
Significance:
Ended the Nullification Crisis without war.
Reinforced federal authority while preserving peace.
Showed the role of negotiation in sectional conflicts.
3. Hartford Convention (1814–1815)
Purpose: Federalist delegates proposed amendments to limit war powers and increase Southern representation during the War of 1812.
Significance:
Seen as unpatriotic; led to decline of Federalist Party.
Highlighted regional tensions during wartime.
4. Adams-Onís Treaty (1819)
Purpose: Spain ceded Florida to the U.S.; U.S. renounced claims to Texas.
Significance:
Clarified southern and western borders.
Reduced territorial conflicts with Spain.
Encouraged westward expansion and strengthened U.S. control over southeastern lands.