History 3/12 Flashcards

Medieval Christianity & Church Reform

• Cluniac Reform – A movement in the 10th and 11th centuries that sought to free the Church from secular influence by emphasizing monastic purity and obedience to the pope.

• Pope Gregory VII – A reformist pope (r. 1073–1085) who fought against lay investiture, asserting papal supremacy over secular rulers.

• Lay Investiture – The practice of secular rulers appointing bishops and abbots, which led to conflict between church and state.

• King Henry IV of Germany – The Holy Roman Emperor who clashed with Pope Gregory VII over lay investiture, leading to his excommunication.

• Excommunication – A severe Church punishment that cut individuals off from the sacraments and Christian community. 

• Papal Curia – The administrative body of the Church, assisting the pope in governance.

• Pope Innocent III – A powerful pope (r. 1198–1216) who expanded papal authority and called the Fourth Lateran Council.

• Interdict – A Church sanction that forbade the administration of sacraments in a particular region to pressure rulers.

Monasticism & Religious Orders

• Convents – Religious communities where nuns lived in devotion to God.

• Hildegard of Bingen – A 12th-century abbess, mystic, composer, and writer known for her theological and scientific works.

• Cistercian Order – A stricter offshoot of the Benedictine order, emphasizing simplicity and manual labor.

• Benedictine Order – A monastic order founded by St. Benedict that followed the Rule of St. Benedict, promoting prayer and work.

• Mendicant Orders: Franciscans, Dominicans – Religious groups that lived by begging and preaching, rejecting monastic seclusion.

• Francis of Assisi – Founder of the Franciscans, who emphasized poverty and care for the poor.

• Dominic de Guzman – Founder of the Dominicans, who focused on preaching against heresy.

• Poor Clares – A Franciscan order of nuns that lived in poverty and devotion.

• Beguines – Communities of laywomen who lived in piety without formal vows.

Christian Beliefs & Practices

• Sacraments – Sacred rituals of the Church, such as baptism and the Eucharist.

• Relics – Holy objects associated with saints, believed to have spiritual power.

• Indulgences – Grants from the Church that reduced time in purgatory, sometimes abused for financial gain.

• Purgatory – A place where souls were purified before entering heaven.

• Pilgrimage – A religious journey to sacred sites.

The Crusades & Religious Conflict

• Crusade – A series of holy wars launched by Christians to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslims.

• Fourth Lateran Council – A 1215 Church council led by Pope Innocent III, which defined Church doctrine and required Jews and Muslims to wear identifying clothing.

• Anti-Semitism – Hostility toward Jews, often leading to persecution.

Pre-Islamic Arabia & Early Islam

• Bedouins – Nomadic Arab tribes that played a key role in early Islamic society.

• Muruwwa – The pre-Islamic Arab code of honor, emphasizing bravery and loyalty.

• Mecca – A major Arabian trade and religious center, the birthplace of Islam.

• Parthians – An Iranian dynasty (247 BCE–224 CE) that controlled Persia before the Sassanids.

• Sassanids – The Persian dynasty (224–651 CE) that rivaled the Byzantine Empire.

• Zoroastrianism – The dominant religion of the Sassanid Empire, focused on the struggle between good and evil.

• Ka’ba – A sacred shrine in Mecca that became the center of Islamic worship.

• Quraysh – The dominant tribe of Mecca, which initially opposed Muhammad.

• Sheik – A tribal leader in Arabian society.

Muhammad & Islamic Beliefs

• Muhammad – The founder of Islam, believed to be God’s final prophet.

• Hadith – Collections of Muhammad’s sayings and actions, guiding Islamic practice.

• Qur’an – The holy book of Islam, believed to contain God’s revelations.

• Khadija – Muhammad’s first wife and supporter.

• Hashemite – Muhammad’s clan within the Quraysh tribe.

• Gabriel (Jibril) – The angel who revealed God’s message to Muhammad.

• Hagira (Hijra) – Muhammad’s migration to Medina in 622, marking the start of the Islamic calendar.

• Umma – The united Muslim community.

Islamic Practices & Expansion

• Medina – The city where Muhammad established the first Muslim community.

• 5 Pillars of Islam – The core practices of Islam: faith, prayer, fasting, almsgiving, and pilgrimage.

• Hajj – The pilgrimage to Mecca, required of Muslims.

• Ramadan – The month of fasting in Islam.

• Ulama – Islamic scholars who interpret religious law.

• Caliph – The leader of the Muslim community after Muhammad.

• Abu Bakr – The first caliph, who unified Arabia.

• Imam – A leader of Islamic worship, especially in Shi’ism.

• Jihad – The struggle for faith, interpreted as both spiritual struggle and holy war.

Islamic Dynasties & Culture

• Umayyads – The first major Islamic dynasty (661–750), centered in Damascus.

• Rashidun – The first four caliphs, seen as rightly guided.

• Mu’awiya – The first Umayyad caliph, who moved the capital to Damascus.

• Damascus – The Umayyad capital.

• Berbers – North African peoples who converted to Islam.

• Tariq – A Muslim general who led the conquest of Spain.

• Gibraltar – The site where Tariq landed in Spain.

• Andalusia – Muslim-controlled Spain.

• Tours – The battle where Charles Martel stopped the Muslim advance into France.

• Greek Fire – A Byzantine weapon used against Muslim fleets.

• Shi’ites – Muslims who believe leadership should stay within Muhammad’s family.

• Sunnis – Muslims who follow the consensus in choosing leaders.

• Abbasids – The dynasty that overthrew the Umayyads, moving the capital to Baghdad.

• Baghdad – The Abbasid capital, a center of learning.

• Harun al-Rashid – A great Abbasid caliph known for cultural and scientific advancements.

• Vizier – A high-ranking political advisor in Islamic states.

• Seljuk Turks – A Central Asian people who became powerful in the Islamic world.

• Sultan – A ruler in the Muslim world.

• Manzikert – A battle in 1071 where the Seljuks defeated the Byzantines.

• Hasan al-Sabbah – The leader of the Nizari Ismailis (Assassins).

Islamic Scholars & Culture

• Avicenna – A Persian philosopher and physician.

• Ibn Battuta – A great Muslim traveler and scholar.

• Maimonides – A Jewish philosopher in Muslim Spain.

• Omar Khayyam – A Persian poet and mathematician.

• Arabian Nights – A famous collection of Middle Eastern tales.

• Sadi – A Persian poet.

• Rumi – A Sufi poet and mystic.

• Sufism – Islamic mysticism emphasizing direct experience of God.

The Crusades

• Alexius Comnenus – The Byzantine emperor who sought Western help against the Turks.

• Pope Urban II – The pope who launched the First Crusade.

• Clermont – The council where Urban II called for the Crusades.

• Peter the Hermit – A leader of the Peasants’ Crusade.

• Crusader States – The Christian-ruled territories in the Holy Land.

• Saladin – The Muslim leader who recaptured Jerusalem.

• Richard the Lionhearted – The English king who led the Third Crusade.

• Fourth Crusade – A Crusade that sacked Constantinople instead of fighting Muslims.

• Inquisitors – Church officials who investigated heresy.

Knights Templar – A military-religious order protecting pilgrimshistory flash card