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Notes on Global Politics: Key Concepts and Debates

Power as the Core Idea of International Politics

  • The opening idea from Politics Among Nations (1948): International politics, like all politics, is a struggle for power.
  • What people are aiming for in politics: wealth, power, prestige, status; power is the means to reach those ends.
  • Different forms of power discussed: military power, economic power, the power of ideas; hard power vs soft power (e.g., soft power via cultural appeal like K-pop and South Korea’s image).
  • The emphasis on power underlines why actors behave as they do in international relations.

Key Actors, Institutions, and the Global System

  • Global politics includes a spectrum of actors beyond states: international organizations (IOs) like the United Nations (UN) and the World Bank; alliances like NATO; Canada’s role within alliances.
  • China is creating major international organizations to rival traditional ones, signaling a shift in global governance dynamics.
  • Examples of IOs and alliances: UN, World Bank, NATO, the Commonwealth. IOs are increasingly influential as part of global governance.
  • NATO: founded after World War II to deter the Soviet Union; Canada was a founding member; Article 5 states that an attack on one ally is considered an attack on all.
  • Canada’s obligations within NATO include meeting defense spending benchmarks (bare minimum) of about 2 ext{ to }3 ext{ ext{% of GDP}} for its military.
  • Discussion of soft power vs declines in U.S. soft power: U.S. soft power described as deteriorating, with critiques of policy moves (e.g., detentions) and a reduction in foreign aid, contrasted with a rising emphasis on hard power capabilities.
  • A concrete hard policy example cited: spending 1{,}000{,}000{,}000 to round up people; building 100 brand-new detention centers; and reductions in foreign aid.
  • The question of sovereignty and interdependence: interdependence is a hallmark of the global system but can be asymmetrical, where some actors depend more on others than vice versa.

Global Governance, Rules, and the Role of Institutions

  • Global governance vs world government: the idea that rules, norms, and institutions (not a single world state) can regulate state behavior and reduce conflict.
  • Examples of governance mechanisms: UN, EU, various international agreements, and norms governing the global commons (oceans, Antarctica) and weapons.
  • Nuclear nonproliferation framework: The Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) began in 1968 and was renewed in 1995 for an indefinite period. Signatories who do not have nukes pledge not to acquire them, and those with nukes pledge to pursue disarmament; inspections are conducted by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
  • IAEA inspections: Inspections are conducted to verify compliance and detect any missing fissile material (plutonium or uranium) at nuclear facilities. The IAEA’s role is central in verifying nonproliferation efforts.
  • Iraq case: The Gulf War (1990–1991) involved claims about Iraq’s nuclear program; the IAEA and allied assessments led to assertions about Iraq’s nuclear status and subsequent actions.
  • Universal Human Rights vs Sovereignty: UDHR (Universal Declaration of Human Rights) was signed in 1948, establishing universal human rights norms, but they conflict with state sovereignty: sovereignty grants states the right to govern domestically, while universal rights apply regardless of borders. The analogy used is that sovereignty and universal rights are like water and vinegar—conceptually opposite yet both important.
  • Nonintervention norm: Traditionally, states were not expected to intervene in internal affairs of other states; humanitarian intervention and the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) emerged to address egregious human rights abuses, prompting debates about sovereignty and intervention.
  • Canada’s leadership in humanitarian intervention: Canada has been seen as an advocate for protecting vulnerable populations (R2P), though this remains contested within broader geopolitics.
  • Human rights and sovereignty tensions are ongoing; the UDHR provides universal principles, but enforcement relies on norms and institutions rather than a single global enforcement mechanism.

Security Architecture, Nuclear Politics, and Deterrence

  • The postwar security order and NATO’s role in deterrence against potential Soviet expansionism.
  • The geopolitics of nuclear weapons: Ukraine’s denuclearization after the dissolution of the Soviet Union—turning over missiles to Russia—was framed as reducing nuclear risks, but subsequent Russian aggression has led to critical reassessments of denuclearization incentives and security guarantees. The logic of nuclear deterrence and nonproliferation is weighed against evolving security threats.
  • The role of the UN and global governance in security: larger powers and their influence on funding and participation in major organizations (e.g., the United States historically funded a large share of UN budgets). The shift toward an "American first" policy challenges long-standing financial commitments to multilateral institutions.

Trade, Economic Interdependence, and Liberal Order

  • The liberal international order linked free trade to peace: freer trade is argued to reduce the likelihood of conflict and promote prosperity, a narrative reinforced by the World Bank and the IMF.
  • Critiques of liberal trade in practice: rising nationalism and protectionism (e.g., tariffs, “American first”) can undermine the broad benefits of free trade and global interdependence. Tariffs increase the cost of trade and can be used as a political signal or weapon.
  • Interdependence and asymmetry: liberalism emphasizes the benefits of interdependence, but the relationship is not always symmetrical; some states depend more on others for markets or inputs than others depend on them for the same.
  • Canada–U.S. economic relationship: Canada faces vulnerabilities from U.S. sanctions and shifts in U.S. policy; the claim that the United States depends on Canada more than vice versa is contrasted with the reality that U.S. global leadership and institutions rely on participation from multiple powerful states. The possibility that the U.S. may push for multilateral organizations to relocate or change is raised.
  • Tariffs and signaling: tariffs are described as a tool to signal protectionist preferences, making trade more expensive and potentially undermining the liberal order.
  • Ukraine’s nuclear decision: Ukraine’s denuclearization after the Soviet breakup reduced immediate nuclear proliferation risks but is weighed against current security realities in the region.

Technology, Cyber, and Modern Warfare

  • The emergence of digital warfare and cyber threats: modern warfare includes cyber capabilities that can disable critical infrastructure such as power grids, GPS, hospitals, and financial systems (stock exchanges), causing systemic disruption beyond traditional kinetic warfare.
  • The implication is that security depends on resilience of infrastructure and cross-cutting policy responses to non-kinetic threats.

Environmental Change, Global Commons, and Arctic Sovereignty

  • Environmental transnational issues: environmental problems require cross-border cooperation; even aggressive efforts to mitigate climate change can be overwhelmed by the actions of other countries.
  • The ozone layer example: a major hole in the ozone layer was linked to refrigerants; global policy responses (including bans on certain substances) contributed to healing the ozone layer, illustrating a potential for positive global governance impact.
  • Arctic sovereignty: warming Arctic conditions raise questions about sovereignty and access to resources; Canada’s interest in Arctic sovereignty has grown as conditions and accessibility change.
  • The Arctic as a field for policy and research: undergraduates pursue Arctic sovereignty topics, reflecting its relevance in global governance and national interests.

Key Dates, Institutions, and Terms (Reference Points)

  • 1948: Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) signed; establishes universal human rights principles. 1948
  • 1968: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) begins; aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons. 1968
  • 1995: NPT renewed for an indefinite period ("renewed in 1995 for forever"); inspections carried out by IAEA. 1995
  • 1945–1949: NATO formed in the early postwar period to deter Soviet expansion (context for NATO’s Article 5).
  • 1990–1991: Gulf War and discussions around Iraq’s nuclear program and IAEA assessments. 1990, 1991

Reflections and Practical Implications

  • Sovereignty vs universal human rights: ongoing tension between respecting state sovereignty and protecting universal human rights; interventions like R2P reflect attempts to balance these concerns.
  • The role of IOs and regimes: UN, EU, IAEA, and other institutions provide rules, norms, and enforcement mechanisms that can reduce tension and facilitate cooperation, but require financing, compliance, and participation from major powers.
  • Interdependence and policy design: recognizing asymmetrical interdependence is crucial for understanding leverage, bargaining power, and policy choices (e.g., which states matter most in a given issue area).
  • Environment and technology as governance frontiers: global governance must address cross-border environmental problems and cyber threats that undermine traditional state-centric security models.
  • The importance of case-based understanding: Ukraine’s denuclearization, NATO’s deterrence framework, and Arctic sovereignty debates offer concrete illustrations of how theories play out in real-world scenarios.

Quick Reference: Key Terms and Concepts

  • Power: the ability to influence others and achieve objectives; forms include military, economic, and soft power.
  • Hard power vs soft power: coercive vs. normative/influential forms of power.
  • Interdependence: mutual dependence among states; can be asymmetrical.
  • Global governance: norms, rules, and institutions that manage relations between states without a single global sovereign.
  • Sovereignty: states have ultimate authority within their borders; tension with universal human rights.
  • Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR): 1948 treaty establishing universal human rights norms.
  • Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): 1968 treaty; non-nuclear states pledge not to acquire nuclear weapons; nuclear weapons states pursue disarmament; IAEA inspections verify compliance.
  • Responsibility to Protect (R2P): humanitarian intervention norm aimed at protecting populations from mass atrocity crimes.
  • Global commons: areas like oceans and Antarctica governed by international regimes.
  • IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency; conducts inspections to verify peaceful use of nuclear materials.
  • Tariffs: taxes on imports used as a policy instrument to regulate trade.
  • Arctic sovereignty: national claims and governance over Arctic territories as ice melts and access to resources expands.