Irish Independence - Paper 2

Irish Independence: Origins

Timeline

1798 - Wolfe Tone’s United Irishmen Rebellion (defeated by G.B.)

1800 - Act of Union (united G.B. and Ireland)

1823 - Daniel O'Connell forms the Catholic Association (campaigned for Catholic emancipation)

1829 - Catholic Emancipation Act (allowed Catholics to hold office, vote, & sit as M.P.s, reduced amount of Irish Catholic peasants able to vote)

1838 - Tithe Commutation Act for Ireland (allowed tithes to be paid monetarily, tithe=tenth, used to be livestock)

1840 - Daniel O’Connell forms Repeal Association (campaign for repeal of Acts of Union)

1845 - Start of “Great Famine”

1846 - Repeal of Corn Laws (removed import tariffs, made corn cheap but hurt domestic producers)

1848 - Young Ireland Rebellion begins (campaign for study of Irish history, culture, & language for independence)

Nationalism and Political Ideology

• No single, original Gaelic or Irish Race

• Catholicism was seen as native/Indigenous

  • Christianity arrived in 431 CE from England

  • Irish Catholicism was seen as a symbol of resistance to English power

• Irish Sovereignty

  • Struggle against the “oppressive embrace” of England

• English = Protestant, Irish = Catholic

English Colonialism

• Ireland was colonized in 1171-1250

  • King Henry VIII declared King of Ireland

• “Plantation of Ireland”

  • English and Scottish settlers confiscated 11 million acres in North and Central Ireland.

  • Early resistance created a proto-nation (quasi-state = not fully autonomous)

• The Protestant Ascendency

  • 1649 - Oliver Cromwell abolished the Irish Parliament

  • Land ownership linked to Protestantism

  • Solidified Irish ideas of English cruelty

• Martin Luther begins the Protestant Reformation with 95 Theses

• Henry VII created the Church of England (Monarch is head of State & Church) mainly to divorce Catherine of Aragorn and marry Anne Boleyn.

Theobald Wolfe Tone 1763-98

• “Declaration and Resolutions of the Society of United Irishmen of Belfast” (1791)

  • Called for Irish Home Rule (not independence, only domestic control), influenced by the French Revolution of 1798 and Thomas Paine’s Rights of Man

• Failed violent rising in 1798 transitioned nationalism from accommodation to autonomy via revolution.

• Act of Union 1800 - reaction to failed rebellion, abolish Irish Parliament and united Great Britain and Ireland as the U.K.

Daniel O’Connell 1775-1847

• Maybe the most important politician in the history of Irish Nationalism

  • “The Liberator”

• Founded the Catholic Association in 1823 - “Catholic Rent” (cheap monthly membership) and support from the Catholic Church

• Franchise limited to Protestants and Catholics who were large landowners since 1793

  • Tenants pressured to vote with landowners - Catholics couldn’t hold office yet

• The Irish had to tithe (through taxes) to the Church of England and the Catholic Church

• O’Connell charged 25 cents for Catholic Rent to help poor people join and create a mass organization.

• He challenged the parliamentary seat in 1828, resulting in growing sectarian violence.

• Catholic Emancipation passed the House of Commons in 1829

  • This allowed Catholics in parliament, high military ranks, and government posts

  • Raised property requirement for voting, however, and ended up disenfranchising a majority of Catholics.

• *England’s Government comprised the House of Lords (who had veto power 3x) and the House of Commons.

• He became a member of Parliament (MP) in 1830

  • Successful Tithe Commutation Act in 1838

  • Church of Ireland was disestablished with the 1869 Irish Church Act

• Repeal Association Founded in 1840

  • pushed for repeal of the Act of Union

  • mainly supported by Catholic clergy but not Ulster (protestant majority)

  • *Ulster’s population was mainly Protestant and the religious minority in Ireland, but they maintained power through Britain’s control; they wanted to remain a part of Great Britain.

• Organized “monster meetings” (massive rallies) at historic site

  • banned by the British in 1843

  • O’Connell was jailed briefly in 1844 after his rallies were banned

• O'Connell demonstrated success for large scale popular non-violent mobilization

• *Sets the stage for linking Irish national identity to Catholicism, makes movement massive and non-violent, not successful with Repeal Association.

The Great Potato Famine

• Ireland is more rural than the rest of Europe - its role as a colony was exporting and producing raw goods, which limited industrial development - 60% agricultural drop after the war with France in 1815 (Napoleon)

• Massive population growth - 5 mil (1800) to 8.5 mil (1845)

• Textile industry recession and movement of manufacturing to Ulster

• High land rent with absent English landowners

  • 3 mil relied on potato crop by 1845, potatoes reliable and cheap

• 1845 - 1/3 crop killed by blight

  • Tenants were evicted for not paying rent to landlords

• PM Robert Peel bought £100,000 worth of corn from the US to stabilize prices

  • enacted some public laws, but generally, libertarian response

  • repealed Corn Law in 1846

  • Corn became cheaper, but GB did not ban food exports from Ireland, and the famine continued.

  • Riots resulted

• PM Lord Russell removed food distribution and public works later in 1846

• 1846 - ¾ crops failed

  • industrial workers couldn’t afford food

  • 46-47 very harsh winter

• Black 47 - massive starvation and spread of typhus

  • available grain too expensive to afford

  • 3 mil relied on soup kitchens before they shut don

• 1848 was the worst year of blight, with no government help

  • improvement only after 1852

Results of the Famine

• Population - 8.3 mil (1845) to 6.5 mil (1851)

  • 1846-1851 - 1 mil dead (1/8 population)

  • 1.5 mil emigrated to the US, Australia, and New Zealand

  • by 1900, the population was half that of 1845 (4.35 mil)

• It came to symbolize the evils of the Union with Britain

• Karl Marx believed failures of landlordism would break English capitalism

  • revolutionary republicanism in Ireland would create national resistance

  • Proletarian revolution would follow - national identity lost - social status united

• Marxist: economic, belief in economic determinism, structuralist - individuals don’t matter politically and economically

  • Capitalism (politics, equality), federalism (born into), mercantilism (monopolistic), socialism ( equal economic opportunity), communism (empire building)

  • Bourgeois (french), Proletarian (social class)

Young Irelanders est. 1847

• est. 1847

• led by Charles Gavan Duffy, Thomas Davis (protestant), and John Blake Dillion

  • resigned from the Repeal Association after O’Connell pushed for “peaceful resolutions.”

• “Romantic, cultural nationalists” intent on creating shared Catholic and Protestant Irish identity

  • centered Irish history on the idea of the Celt - “authentic, distinctive, and inspiring.”

  • highlighted Irish language and music

• The Nation and John Mitchel’s The United Irishmen helped form a shared national identity

• Called for civil disobedience and, eventually, an uprising

  • argued for violence influenced by revolutions in France, Hungary, Poland, and Italy in 1848

• 1848 rebellion

  • failed due to famine conditions and poor organization

  • Catholic Church did not support

Irish Independence: Methods of Success

Timeline 1

1859: Irish Republican Brotherhood

1867: Fenian uprisings

1870: First Irish Land Act

1879: start of Land War and est. of National Land League by Parnell and Davitt

1881: Second Irish Land Act

1882: Parnell forms the Irish National League

1886: First Home Rule Bill

1893: Second Home Rule Bill

1905: Sinn Fein formed

1912: Third Home Rule Bill; Ulster Volunteer Force formed

1913: Irish volunteers formed - WWI begins in 1914; Germany tries to destroy U.K from the inside with arms deals

1916: Easter Rising

1918: Sinn Fein’s general election victory (British brutality in 1916 executions)

1919: Declaration of Irish Independence, star of “War of Independence”

1921: Start of London Conference

1922: Anglo-Irish Treaty ratified

Fenians

• Founded 1858 by John O’Mahoney - not interested in Catholicism - Gaelic past and unity

  • 1848 Young Irelanders Rebellion veteran

  • Fianna - legendary Irish warriors

  • created/funded by Irish support in the US - bonds issued by “Irish Republic” to purchase weapons

• British weaknesses in the Crimean (Ukraine) War (1853-56) and the Indian (Sepoy) Mutiny (1857) grew support for Ireland

• Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) founded in 1859

  • democratic wing of Fenians

• Irish People Newspaper

  • “Militant Irish Republicanism”

  • demanded what was “rightfully theirs” from England

• Gov. crackdown

  • newspapers closed, funds taken, and leadership arrested in 1865

• 1867 Fenian uprising failed

  • attempted rescue of leaders in Manchester and Birmingham

  • Manchester Martyrs - Michael Larkin, William Philip Allen, and Michael O’Brien

  • Birmingham explosion killed 12 working-class people

• Fenian attacks also failed in Canada, 1866-71 - Irish population in Newfoundland

• Violence not supported by the Catholic Church

Fenian Contributions

• writings and martyrdom increased nationalism (Young Irelanders)

• failed uprisings and executions pushed movements to peaceful solutions

• Wanted Gaelic National identity - not religious identity

Land Question

• Small landholdings disappeared

  • larger estates raised rent

  • 1847-50 had 50,000 evictions

• Irish Tenant League emerged in 1850

  • Demanded 3 Fs via Protestant John Gray’s The Freeman’s Journal

  • Free Soil - compensation for improving land

  • Fair Rent - fixed by tribunal, rather than landlords

  • Fixity of tenure - guaranteed tenants could remain on land

• 1870: 34% of the land was owned by 302 landowners

  • ¼ lived outside Ireland

Land War 1879-82

• Renewed call for 3 Fs via Protestant John Gray’s The Freeman’s Journal

• the first Irish Land Act (1870) allowed the free sale

  • no rent control tribunals or protections from eviction

  • Peace Preservation Act to quell violence - arrest of IRB and Fenian leaders

• Irish National Land League created by Charles Parnell and Michael Davitt

  • Parnell entered the House of Commons in 1875 - the secret Ballot Act of 1872 ended landlord pressure on tenants

• Social Pressure via public meetings, rallies, posters, rent strikes, and boycotts

• Ladies Land League was crucial to success - Anna and Fanny Parnell

• Land War (1879-82)

• the second Irish Land Act (1881) allowed fixity of tenure but not fair rent

  • Land League pushed for a rent strike

  • Parnell and Davitt were arrested via the Irish Coercion Act of 1881

  • Newspapers and League banned

• Parnell and Davitt issued a “ No Rent Manifesto” from the prison

  • violence - 2,500 skirmishes (“outrages”) in 1880

  • 4,00 in 1881 and more in 1882

• 1882 Kilmainham Treat allowed some relief

Land Reform 1885-92

• £5 mil for long-term, low-interest loans for renters

• Irish Land Purchase Acts of 1888 and 1891

  • results of Plan of Campaign organization of tenants to force fair rent by landlords

  • Passage allowed more focus on home rue and/or independence calls

National independence or Home Rule?

• New nationalist organizations combined economic, religious, political, and cultural aspirations.

  • Gaelic Athletic Association est. 1884

  • Unites Irish League est. 1898

  • Catholicism a central language for cultural meaning

    • true for Home Rule Protestants as well

• “Anglicized present” condemned against imagined idealistic Gaelic past

Division - Home Rule or Independence?

• Irish National League formed by Charles Parnell in 1882

  • Home Rule will support of the Catholic Church

  • Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP) formed in House of Commons

  • 1885 election - IPP won 86/103 Irish seats in Parliament

• Sinn Feín (we ourselves) founded 1905 by Arthur Griffith

  • Called for independence, not Home Rule

  • Parliamentary group from Gaelic organizations and former IRB and Fenians

  • “The invincibles” - assassins - murdered important political figures

Parliament and Home Rule

• Parliament Act of 1911

  • Hoc could override House of Commons vetoes if law passed 3x

  • third Home Rule Bill passed HOC May, 1914

  • Suspensory Act postponed implementation w WW1 outbreak in August

• Sinn Feín members like Padraig Pearse, James Connolly, Michael Collins and Eamon de Valera emerged as revolutionary leaders

Unionist Resistance and WW1

• Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) established 1913 by Sir Edward Carson

  • Paramilitary force of Unionist against Home Rule

• Curragh Mutiny March, 1914

  • Protestant officers resigned commissions in Dublin

  • Protesting Home Rule

• Irish volunteers and Irish Citizens Army formed to oppose the UVF

• Home Rulers - support British in WW1 or not?

• The Easter Rising April 24, 1916

• IRB moved to rebellion

  • argued they were for democracy but…

  • excluded ideas of Ulster and Protestants

  • Highlighted deep Catholic identity

• Padraig Pearse and James Connolly led 2,000 to take Dublin gov. buildings

  • Response to Roger Casement’s arrest

  • suspected of guns smuggling from Germany

• Declared independence and raised Irish tricolor flag over General Post Office building.

The Easter Rising (April 24th, 1916)

IRB moved to rebellion

• Argued they were for democracy, but…

  • Excluded ideas of Ulster and Protestants

  • Highlighted deep Catholic identity

Padraig Pearse and James Connolly led 2,000 to take Dublin gov. buildings

• Response to Roger Casement’s arrest

  • suspected of gun smuggling from Germany

Declared independence and raised Irish tricolor flag over General Post Office building.

The Easter Rising - Results

Surrender in 6 days

• British leadership shelling and troops

• 450 dead, 250 of whom were civilians

• 2,600 wounded

Sinn Fein blamed for Rising

• 3,500 arrested, 2,500 deported

• oddly led to post-rising dominance

16 leader figures executed

• James Connolly, Roger Casement, and Padraig Pearse

• overreaction of greater WW1 fears

• Eamon de Valera escaped execution than prison, thanks to COllins

• Publiner sympathy for those originally opposed to Rising

Sinn Fein began to win elections in 1917 over IPP

• de Valera won East Clare seat March 1917

• membership grew to 250,000 by 1918

• partial cause the extension of Irish conscription

Sinn Féin’s Rise & Independence Declaration

December 1918 UK General Election - BIG ELECTION

• Sinn Fein won 73; IPP 6;Unionist 26 of 105 total

• Included Countess Markieviez

  • E.R Commander and first woman ever elected to HOC

Sinn Fein members refuse Westminster Seats

• created the Dail Eireann (Parliament of Ireland)

• Irish Declaration of independence passed at 1st meeting in January 1919

• de Valera elected President in February of 1919, Griffith VP, and Collins Minister of Finance

Anglo Irish War

Irish Republican Army

• officially separate from Sinn Fein and Dail

• funded by de Valera’s campaign work in the US

• Guerilla tactics and specialized assassination units - The Squad

  • 1919/20 - killed 196 police and 54 soldiers; damaged/destroyed 45 barracks

Propaganda via Irish Bulletin - detailed British atrocities

• emphatically Catholic

• Young “literary rebels”

• adventure seekers

• socially/economically disaffected

Zealous minority, violence to promote nationalism

• violence against British and non-British citizens

• not supported by all Irish

British Special Forces deployed “Black and Tans”

• harsh tactics and violence pushed many towards Sinn Fein

Bloody Sunday - November 28th, 1920

• IRA killed 18 Black and Tans in Kilmichael, County Cork

• Response to killing of 13 spectators and a footballer at Croke Park

Gov. of Ireland Act passed on December 23rd 1920

• proposed 2 separate Home Rule Gov.

• rejected by Sinn Fein

• Unionists won general elections

• Northern Ireland created May, 1921

Truce in June due to stalemate and London Conference in October

• Lloyd George offered Dominion Status

• temporary North Ireland inclusion in the UK

• de Valera wouldn’t compromise on HR offer

• Collins led negotiation

Irish Independence: Challenges faced in the first 10 years

Independence gained on December 6th, 1921

Anglo-Irish Treaty (Dec. 1921)

Created the Irish free state with 26 countries

• Dominion statuses - Canada, Australia, and New Zealand

• Northern Ireland - 6 Northeastern countries

• Swore oath of loyalty to British Crown

Collins argued as the best option

• Boundary Commission and Council of Ireland included to work for reunification

Narrowly accepted by Dáil and confirmed by June 1922 Free State General election

(Autarky - resources and manufacturers Russia, India, China)

English on post- Independence

Irish nationalism had a '“British Blind Spot”

Timeline

Jan 1922 - de Valera resigns as provisional president

June 1922 - pro-treaty Sinn Fein wins general election; start of Irish Civil War

Aug 1922 - Collins assassinated

Sep 1922 - An Garda Siochainal (Guardian of the peace) formed

Dec 1922 - Cosgrave becomes PM of Irish Free State

Apr 1923 - End of Civil War; Cumann na nGaedheal formed, Land Purchase Act

Mar 1924 - attempted Army mutiny

1925 - Divorce made illegal

May 1926 - de Valera forms Fianna Fail

Sep 1927 de Valera to take oath to British Crown; Fianna Fail contests election

1927 - Agricultural Credit Corporation set up

Dec 1931 - Statute of Westminster

Feb 1932 - Fianna Fail wins general election; de Valera becomes PM

1932 - Oath of loyalty abolished

1936 - External Relations Act allowed control of foreign policy

1937 - New Constitution and name change to Ireland

April 18th 1939 - Republic of Ireland formed as fully independent.

Key Terms

Act of Union

The Act of Union was a significant legislative agreement that united two countries into one entity.

• It was passed in the respective parliaments of both nations in 1800.

• The Act dissolved the separate Irish and British parliaments in favor of a single United Kingdom parliament.

• It was met with resistance and protests in Ireland, but ultimately came into effect in 1801.

• The Act aimed to politically merge the Kingdom of Ireland with the Kingdom of Great Britain.

Anglo-Irish Treaty

The Anglo-Irish Treaty, signed in December 1921, established the Irish Free State and marked a pivotal moment in the struggle for national independence from British rule.

• The treaty resulted from negotiations post-Irish War of Independence, aiming to create a peaceful resolution.

• It included provisions for self-governance but required allegiance to the British crown.

• The treaty led to a split in the nationalist movement, causing civil conflict between pro- and anti-treaty factions.

• Ratified in January 1922, it came into effect on December 6, 1922, officially founding the Irish Free State.

Catholic Emancipation Act

The Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829 in the United Kingdom allowed Catholics to sit in Parliament and hold public office, marking a significant shift in religious equality.

• The act was spearheaded by figures like Daniel O'Connell, advocating for Catholic rights and representation.

• Prior to the act, Catholics faced severe restrictions, including disenfranchisement and limitations on public office.

• The passage of the act was met with mixed reactions, notably angering Protestant factions in Britain and Ireland.

• The act laid the groundwork for further reforms regarding civil rights and religious equality in subsequent decades.

Easter Rising

The Easter Rising of 1916 was a pivotal armed insurrection against British rule in Dublin, aiming to establish an independent republic, influencing subsequent movements for freedom.

• The uprising was primarily led by the Irish Republican Brotherhood and other nationalist groups, including the Irish Citizen Army.

• The event began on Easter Monday, April 24, 1916, and lasted for six days before being suppressed by British forces.

• Key figures included Patrick Pearse, James Connolly, and Thomas Clarke, who were later executed, galvanizing public support for independence.

• The rising had long-term effects on national identity, leading to the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922.

Great Famine

The Great Famine, occurring from 1845 to 1852, resulted from potato blight, leading to mass starvation, disease, and emigration, profoundly impacting society and economy.

• Approximately one million people died, while another million emigrated, significantly reducing the population.

• The British government's inadequate response fueled resentment and debates about colonial rule and responsibility.

• The famine prompted changes in agricultural practices and land reform discussions in subsequent years.

• It is also known as the Potato Famine, as the potato was a primary food source.

Home Rule

Home Rule refers to the demand for self-governance by Ireland, allowing a degree of legislative control while remaining part of the United Kingdom, particularly notable in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

• The Home Rule movement gained prominence with the introduction of the First Home Rule Bill in 1886, proposed by William Ewart Gladstone.

• Opposition to Home Rule included the fear of Protestant dominance, particularly in Ulster, leading to the formation of the Ulster Unionist movement.

• The issue intensified political tensions, contributing to the eventual partition of Ireland in 1921 and the establishment of Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State.

• Home Rule was partially achieved in 1914, but its implementation was delayed due to World War I and subsequent political developments.

Irish National Land League

The Irish National Land League, founded in 1879, aimed to address land reform, advocating for tenant rights and fair rents, significantly influencing agrarian politics in Ireland.

• Founded by Michael Davitt, the league sought to combat injustices faced by tenant farmers.

• The league's slogan was 'The land of the people for the people'.

• It organized mass protests and used peaceful civil disobedience to achieve its goals.

• The Land War of the 1880s was a direct result of the league's activism.

Irish Republican Brotherhood

The Irish Republican Brotherhood was a secret society founded in 1858, aiming to establish an independent democratic republic in Ireland through revolutionary means.

• Key figures included John O'Mahony and James Stephens, promoting nationalist ideas and organizing uprisings.

• The Brotherhood played a significant role in the Easter Rising of 1916, influencing later republican movements.

• It was founded in the United States, highlighting the diaspora's involvement in the struggle for Irish independence.

• The organization eventually evolved into the Irish Republican Army, continuing the fight for Irish sovereignty.

Protestant Ascendancy

During this period, Protestant landowners and members of the established Church of Ireland held political power, leading to social, economic, and religious discrimination.

• Characterized by Protestant domination in governance and societal structures.

• Enacted laws to maintain Protestant privilege and restrict Catholic rights.

• Contributed to deep-seated divisions and tensions among different religious groups.

• Resulted in disparities in land ownership and opportunities based on religious affiliation.

Sinn Féin

Sinn Féin is a political party in Ireland, founded in 1905, which advocates for Irish reunification and social justice, historically associated with nationalist movements and the struggle against British rule.

• Emerged from the Gaelic revival and early 20th-century nationalism, advocating for an independent Ireland.

• Played a significant role during the Easter Rising of 1916 and subsequent War of Independence.

• In the late 20th century, aligned with the Provisional IRA during the Northern Ireland conflict.

• In recent years, Sinn Féin has gained electoral success, promoting progressive policies in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.

Unionist Resistance

Unionist Resistance refers to the opposition by Unionists, particularly in Northern Ireland, against movements advocating for Irish independence and the re-unification of Ireland, aiming to maintain Northern Ireland's status as part of the United Kingdom.

• Unionists often identify as British and oppose nationalist movements that seek reunification with the Republic of Ireland.

• Key events include the formation of the Ulster Volunteer Force in 1913 and the Larne gun-running in 1914.

• The Government of Ireland Act 1920 established Northern Ireland, leading to heightened tensions and resistance from Unionists.

• Unionist Resistance has played a crucial role in political dynamics, including the Troubles from the late 1960s to 1998.

Young Ireland Rebellion

The Young Ireland Rebellion of 1848 was an armed uprising against British rule, driven by a desire for national independence and social reform, but it ultimately failed, leading to the leaders' arrest and the exile of many participants.

• The rebellion occurred during a period of famine, exacerbating social tensions and fueling nationalist sentiments among the population.

• Key figures included John Mitchel and Thomas Davis, who were influential in promoting the idea of a republic.

• The uprising began on July 24, 1848, but was poorly coordinated and met with swift government suppression.

• Despite its failure, the rebellion inspired future generations of nationalists, including the leaders of later uprisings.