Chapter 9: Gender Inequality

intersectionality - ways women’s and men’s multiple identities and social locations shape experiences

gender binary - belief only two genders exist, male and female

• erases understanding of intersex people

sex - physical differences of the body

• born with

gender - psychological, social, cultural differences between males and females

• many differences between males and females are not biological in origin

• what we learn and do

nonbinary - gender identity not exclusively masculine or feminine

biological essentialism - differences between men and women are natural and inevitable consequences of intrinsic biological natures of men and women

• neglects and minimizes social influences

  • (Sandra Lipsitz Bem)

“doing gender” - theory that gender is performance, varies by cultural factors

gender socialization - ways individuals learn gender roles from socializing agents

• biological distinction between sexes is starting point for differences that become culturally elaborated and amplified in society

• ex. family, peers, schools, media

social construction of gender - gender identities emerge in relation to perceived sex differences in societies and cultures which shape and perpetuate differences

• reject biological bases for gender differences

hegemonic masculinity - social norms dictating men should be strong, self-reliant, competitive, unemotional

cisgender - person whose gender identity matches biological sex

transgender - chose to identify as gender different than one assigned at birth

intersex - possess both male and female genitalia and those with ambiguous genitalia

patriarchy - organized male dominance in society

• degree of patriarchy varies widely across culture

• construction of gender worldwide placed men superior to women

gender inequality - differences in status, power, prestige women and men have in different groups, collectives, societies

gender-typed - occupation seen as mainly “man’s job” or “women’s job”

sex segregation - concentration of men and women in different occupations

• may cause gender gap in earnings

Lolita effect - patriarchal process, sexual images and naratives delivered to women in societies especially under capitalism

• boys choose sexy girls

• one kind of sexy (slender, curvy, white beauty)

• girls should strive to be sexy

• strive to appear young

Liberal Feminist Theories - address gender disparities through legislation and public policy

• focus on idea of work and family inequality

• separate factors that contribute to inequalities between men and women rather than larger system or structure

• bring about reform in gradual way

  • more moderate in aims and methods

  • may not have been successful in dealing with root causes of gender inequality

• from 1st and 2nd wave feminism

Radical Feminist Theories - system too far broken because of patriarchal structures, need to start over from scratch

• focus on women’s sexuality and reproductive health, appropriation of womens bodies

• family main source of women’s oppression

  • men exploit women by relying on free domestic labor women provide in home

• change through culture, revolution

• argue patriarchy always existed and is source of oppression

  • however concept of patriarchy has historical and cultural variations

  • ignores importance of class, race, ethnicity in nature of subordination

• stems from 2nd wave and 3rd wave feminism

glass ceiling - promotion barrier that prevents women’s upward mobility within organization

• don’t have sponsorship of well-placed, powerful senior colleagues to articulate value to organization/proffession

• tend to progress to mid-level management positions, not beyond

glass escalator - men in traditional female occupations placed on fast track to promotion

• ex. Male teachers more likely to become principals

• (Christine Williams)

sexual harassment - unwanted or repeated sexual advances, remarks, behaviors that are offensive to the recipient and cause discomfort or interfere with job performance

• power imbalances facilitate harassment, more common for men in positions of authority to harass women

hostile work environment - pattern of sexual language, circulation of lewd imagery, or sexual advances makes worker so uncomfortable it’s difficult for worker to do job

motherhood penalty - difficulties mothers face in the workplace

• perception work comes second to having children

• mothers less likely to be hired than childless women with same work experience and qualifications

• mothers offered lower starting pay for same jobs

• considered primary caregivers and perceived as less reliable and less productive workers

second shift - women perform housework and child care before and after paid work day

• women work longer hours than men

• (Arlie Hochschild)

housework - unpaid work carried out in home usually by women

• large gender gap in time women spend doing chores than men

• women save husbands an hour of housework a week, men create seven hours of housework for wives

• household work exchanged for economic support

• ex. cooking, cleaning, shopping

infanticide - crime of killing child within year of its birth

• maybe by mother

rape - forcing of nonconsensual vaginal, oral, anal intercourse without consent

• majority men against woman and relatives

• often goes unreported

• act of violence perpetrator commits to wield power and control over victim

• often carefully planned

• may use alcohol or drugs

rape culture - men socialized to regard women as sexual objects, feel sexual entitlement, instill fear in women by dominating them

• makes men insensitive to difference between consensual and nonconsensual sex, contribute to high levels of sexual violence against women

toxic masculinity - potentially destructive values/behaviors historically part of boys’ socialization

• ex. domination, devaluation of women, homophobia, violence

Manhood Acts - masculinity based around devaluing femininity both publicly and privately

• learned as children, policing of behaviors and emotions

• masculinity entraps men

hegemonic masculinity - ideal form of masculinity associated with traits like aggression, power, competitiveness

• ex. Christian Grey

surface acting - convincing others you are feeling a certain way

deep acting - changing emotions to match with expectations in given situation

cognitive work - change ideas or attitudes

bodily work - control physical reaction to emotions

• ex. facial expressions, posture

expressive work - altering actions to change how you feel

commodification of feelings - selling emotions for a profit

• ex. cigarette ads telling consumers they will be cool and sexy if buy product

emotional labor - emotion work included in job

• common in jobs with communication with clients, making clients feel certain way, frequent supervision

• different gender expectations

  • women subordinate status relative to men

  • different consequences for emotion work

  • emotional management as alternative resource to power, status, money

  • women undeserving of being protected from others’ feelings

• ex. customer service workers act happy

black feminism - focused on particular problems facing Black women

• influence of powerful legacy of slavery, segregation, civil rights movement on gender inequalities in Black community

• suffragettes supported campaign for women’s rights but race couldn’t be ignored

• any theory of gender equality that doesn’t take racism into account can’t explain Black women’s oppression

• multiply disadvantaged by color, sex, and class

suffragettes - early womens rights movements who pressed for equal voting rights

transnational feminism - intersections among nationhood, race, gender, sexuality, economic exploitation against global capitalism

• global processes (colonialism, racism, imperialism) shape gender relations and hierarchies

• liberal feminism themes not relevant for many women in Global South

• research integral to social change