intersectionality - ways women’s and men’s multiple identities and social locations shape experiences
gender binary - belief only two genders exist, male and female
erases understanding of intersex people
sex - physical differences of the body
born with
gender - psychological, social, cultural differences between males and females
many differences between males and females are not biological in origin
what we learn and do
nonbinary - gender identity not exclusively masculine or feminine
biological essentialism - differences between men and women are natural and inevitable consequences of intrinsic biological natures of men and women
neglects and minimizes social influences
(Sandra Lipsitz Bem)
“doing gender” - theory that gender is performance, varies by cultural factors
gender socialization - ways individuals learn gender roles from socializing agents
biological distinction between sexes is starting point for differences that become culturally elaborated and amplified in society
ex. family, peers, schools, media
social construction of gender - gender identities emerge in relation to perceived sex differences in societies and cultures which shape and perpetuate differences
reject biological bases for gender differences
hegemonic masculinity - social norms dictating men should be strong, self-reliant, competitive, unemotional
cisgender - person whose gender identity matches biological sex
transgender - chose to identify as gender different than one assigned at birth
intersex - possess both male and female genitalia and those with ambiguous genitalia
patriarchy - organized male dominance in society
degree of patriarchy varies widely across culture
construction of gender worldwide placed men superior to women
gender inequality - differences in status, power, prestige women and men have in different groups, collectives, societies
gender-typed - occupation seen as mainly “man’s job” or “women’s job”
sex segregation - concentration of men and women in different occupations
may cause gender gap in earnings
Lolita effect - patriarchal process, sexual images and naratives delivered to women in societies especially under capitalism
boys choose sexy girls
one kind of sexy (slender, curvy, white beauty)
girls should strive to be sexy
strive to appear young
Liberal Feminist Theories - address gender disparities through legislation and public policy
focus on idea of work and family inequality
separate factors that contribute to inequalities between men and women rather than larger system or structure
bring about reform in gradual way
more moderate in aims and methods
may not have been successful in dealing with root causes of gender inequality
from 1st and 2nd wave feminism
Radical Feminist Theories - system too far broken because of patriarchal structures, need to start over from scratch
focus on women’s sexuality and reproductive health, appropriation of womens bodies
family main source of women’s oppression
men exploit women by relying on free domestic labor women provide in home
change through culture, revolution
argue patriarchy always existed and is source of oppression
however concept of patriarchy has historical and cultural variations
ignores importance of class, race, ethnicity in nature of subordination
stems from 2nd wave and 3rd wave feminism
glass ceiling - promotion barrier that prevents women’s upward mobility within organization
don’t have sponsorship of well-placed, powerful senior colleagues to articulate value to organization/proffession
tend to progress to mid-level management positions, not beyond
glass escalator - men in traditional female occupations placed on fast track to promotion
ex. Male teachers more likely to become principals
(Christine Williams)
sexual harassment - unwanted or repeated sexual advances, remarks, behaviors that are offensive to the recipient and cause discomfort or interfere with job performance
power imbalances facilitate harassment, more common for men in positions of authority to harass women
hostile work environment - pattern of sexual language, circulation of lewd imagery, or sexual advances makes worker so uncomfortable it’s difficult for worker to do job
motherhood penalty - difficulties mothers face in the workplace
perception work comes second to having children
mothers less likely to be hired than childless women with same work experience and qualifications
mothers offered lower starting pay for same jobs
considered primary caregivers and perceived as less reliable and less productive workers
second shift - women perform housework and child care before and after paid work day
women work longer hours than men
(Arlie Hochschild)
housework - unpaid work carried out in home usually by women
large gender gap in time women spend doing chores than men
women save husbands an hour of housework a week, men create seven hours of housework for wives
household work exchanged for economic support
ex. cooking, cleaning, shopping
infanticide - crime of killing child within year of its birth
maybe by mother
rape - forcing of nonconsensual vaginal, oral, anal intercourse without consent
majority men against woman and relatives
often goes unreported
act of violence perpetrator commits to wield power and control over victim
often carefully planned
may use alcohol or drugs
rape culture - men socialized to regard women as sexual objects, feel sexual entitlement, instill fear in women by dominating them
makes men insensitive to difference between consensual and nonconsensual sex, contribute to high levels of sexual violence against women
toxic masculinity - potentially destructive values/behaviors historically part of boys’ socialization
ex. domination, devaluation of women, homophobia, violence
Manhood Acts - masculinity based around devaluing femininity both publicly and privately
learned as children, policing of behaviors and emotions
masculinity entraps men
hegemonic masculinity - ideal form of masculinity associated with traits like aggression, power, competitiveness
ex. Christian Grey
surface acting - convincing others you are feeling a certain way
deep acting - changing emotions to match with expectations in given situation
cognitive work - change ideas or attitudes
bodily work - control physical reaction to emotions
ex. facial expressions, posture
expressive work - altering actions to change how you feel
commodification of feelings - selling emotions for a profit
ex. cigarette ads telling consumers they will be cool and sexy if buy product
emotional labor - emotion work included in job
common in jobs with communication with clients, making clients feel certain way, frequent supervision
different gender expectations
women subordinate status relative to men
different consequences for emotion work
emotional management as alternative resource to power, status, money
women undeserving of being protected from others’ feelings
ex. customer service workers act happy
black feminism - focused on particular problems facing Black women
influence of powerful legacy of slavery, segregation, civil rights movement on gender inequalities in Black community
suffragettes supported campaign for women’s rights but race couldn’t be ignored
any theory of gender equality that doesn’t take racism into account can’t explain Black women’s oppression
multiply disadvantaged by color, sex, and class
suffragettes - early womens rights movements who pressed for equal voting rights
transnational feminism - intersections among nationhood, race, gender, sexuality, economic exploitation against global capitalism
global processes (colonialism, racism, imperialism) shape gender relations and hierarchies
liberal feminism themes not relevant for many women in Global South
research integral to social change