Social science

Disciplines

• Anthropology

  • Comes from the greek words anthropos (human) and logia (study)

  • Study of the origin and development of human societies and cultures

  • Has several branches like cultural or social anthropology , linguistic anthropology, biological anthropology and archeology

  • Traces back to ancient Greeks and medieval European explorers whose accounts produced initial impressions of native people they encountered. Anthropology further developed with the shift to the new world (north america) through the expertise of european migrants who focused on new settlements.

  • Among famous anthropologists are Franz Boas, Alfred Kroeber, Lewis Henry Morgan, Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead

• Sociology

  • Comes from the latin word socius (compassion) and greek word logia (study), french word - sociologie, coined by Auguste Comte, father of sociology

  • The study of groups and group interactions, societies and social interactions

  • Has several branches like theoretical sociology, historical sociology, sociology of knowledge, sociology of criminology, sociology of law, sociology of religion and sociology of the economy

  • It wasn't until the 19th century that the basis of the modern discipline of sociology can be said to have been truly established. The impetus for the ideas that culminated in sociology can be found in 3 major transformations that defined modern society and the culture of modernity: (1) the development of modern science from the 16th century onward, (2) the emergence of democratic forms of government with the american and french revolutions (1775-1783 and 1789-1799) and (3) the industrial revolution beginning in the 18th century

• Political Science

  • Comes from the greek word polis (city-state) and latin word scientia (knowledge)

  • The systematic study of governance by the application of empirical and generally scientific methods of analysis

  • Has several branches like public administration, comparative politics, domestic policy and international relations

  • The ancient Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle, are credited for their early contributions to developing the discipline as they wrote ideas on how to properly govern their polis or city-states.

  • Medieval political writers such as Machiavelli, Hobbes, Montesquieu, Rosseau, and Bodin each contributed to the modern ideas of governance, power, laws and the concept of sovereignty

Culture

• Beliefs, objects, values, and behaviors shared by a group

• “That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” - Edward B. Tylor, British anthropologist

• Cultural variations - cultures differ in how they view different aspects of life, whether it be eating habits, religion, music, food and language

• Elements of culture

  • Symbols - anything that meaningfully represents something

  • Language - system of words used to communicate with others

  • Values - culturally defined standards for what is good and desirable

  • norms - culturally defined expectations of behavior

• Characteristics

  • Culture is learned - the process by  which people learn their culture through the transmission between generations is enculturation

  • Culture is normative - culture sets its standards of behavior that guides people to act accordingly

  • Culture is socially transmitted - culture is passed on through social interaction primarily through language. Transmission can be through imitation or through instruction.

  • Culture is shared - culture is not something that an individual alone possesses. Aspects of culture such as beliefs, traditions, customs are always shared among groups of people

  • Culture is relative and adaptive - cultures vary from one society to another. What may be acceptable in one culture may not be in another. Cultures may also change over a period of time

• Layers of culture

  • Culture traditions (top) - it distinguishes one’s society from the others

  • Subculture (middle) - the retained original culture traditions of people who belong to another society (e.g. FilAms, Taipans, Japinoys, etc). Q cultural group within a larger culture, often having beliefs or interests at variance with those of the larger culture

  • Culture universals - shared behavior patterns

    • Verbal language communication

    • Classifying people to age, gender

    • Classifying people based on kinship and social status

    • Division of labor based on gender

    • Regulating rules for social behavior

    • Body ornaments

    • Recreational activities (jokes, games, sports, etc)

    • Art

    • Child rearing based on specific family setting

    • Concept of privacy

Orientations in Viewing Cultures

• Orientation - noun. Knowing where they are, the direction of

• Ethnocentrism - evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one’s own culture. Think your culture is superior

  • William G. Sumner coined this term

• Xenocentrism - refers to the desire to engage in the elements of another’s culture rather than one's own. Style, ideas, and products can all be items of preference by someone with xenocentrist viewpoints. Thinks their culture is inferior

• Cultural relativism - understand a culture on from their own perspective and not to make judgements using the standards of one’s own culture

• Multiculturalism - the view that cultures, races, and ethnicities particularly those of minority groups, deserve special acknowledgement of their differences within a dominant political culture (same progression, equity for all)

Sociocultural Evolution

Gerhard Lenski said that technological progress is the most fundamental factor in the evolution of societies & cultures.

Societies go through changes as technology changes.

1. Hunting & Gathering

   • composed of small groups

   • nomadic - moving from one place to another rather than living in one place all of the time

   • basic tools for hunting

   • very low inequality

   • subsistence economy - economy directed to basic needs (the provision of food, clothing, shelter)

   • no material surplus, no food preservation

2. Pastoral

   • based on the domestication of animals (taming animals)

     • can make cheese and milk

   • nomadic lifestyle - they have to look for place where their animals can feed

   • simple tools are used

3. Horticultural

   • first human settlements were founded

     • human population got bigger, people started discovering that they can plant

   • semi-sedentary/semi-permanent to stay near sources of food

     • they have to look for places where their corps can be sustained

     • kaingin system - move to one location in the mountain, slash all the trees and burn it then turn into small plot of land to farm on, once all minerals are taken away, they will move

   • small-scale farming

   • use of simple farming tools

4. Agricultural/Agrarian

   • more sophisticated tools were used

   • permanent settlements

   • bigger population

   • creation of specialization to support needs of the society

     • specialization - your job in society like farming, making clothes, baking

   • creation of social institutions like schools, church, & government

   • Material Surplus

     • more resources than needed to feed a population

     • this became the basis for social inequality

5. Industrial

   • started during the industrial revolution

     • people started being open to new ideas in terms of science, politics

     • industrial revolution - during this time simple gadgets that made people’s work more efficient were made like automobile, steam engine

     • Adam Smith proposed that government should not control business so that they would prosper on their own - laissez faire, this gave birth to the idea of capitalism

   • shift from human and animal power to machine power

     • more production was done, material surplus increased

   • larger population

   • led to wider disparity among groups in society as material surplus increased

     • Karl Marx - proposed the idea of communism, opposed the ideas of Adam Smith

   • we now rely on knowledge, whoever has knowledge has power

Socialization

• discussed in sociology

• the life-long process of social interaction

Types of Socialization:

1. Primary Socialization (Family)

   • is the period early in a person's life during which they initially learn and build themselves through experiences and interactions around them.

2. Gender Socialization

   • where we learn our culture’s gender related rules, norms, & expectations

3. Racial Socialization

   • where we learn our culture’s behaviors, values, and attitudes associated with racial groups

4. Class Socialization

   • where it molds norms, values, and choices based on socioeconomic status

5. Anticipatory Socialization

   • where people learn to take on the values and standards of groups they plan to join

6. Secondary Socialization

   • where children become socialized outside of the home, in the larger society

Enculturation

• discussed in anthropology

• process by which you are oriented in your own culture

• things that you value, things that you learn in your culture

Pierre Bourdieu

• French sociologist who first introduced cultural capital

Cultural Capital

• accumulation of knowledge, behaviors, and skills that a person can tap into in order to demonstrate one’s cultural competence and social status

• example is reading of bedtime stories before sleeping

• could also promote social divisions which could lead to social inequality

Total Institutions

• strips down and changes our identity following the institution’s ideals

Resocialization

• stripping down and changing our identity

Reverse Socialization

• elder generations learn from the younger generations

Enculturation

• process by which you are oriented into your own culture (e.g. who is in your family)

Acculturation

• cultural adaptation when individuals from different backgrounds interact and influence each other (e.g. colonization)

Cultural Diffusion

• spread of cultural elements from one society to another over time (e.g. through media, using lingo picked up from western movies)

Ways Socialization affects the way we perceive others:

Bias

• favoritism, influencing decisions or perceptions, often without conscious awareness.

Stereotypes

• Oversimplified, generalized beliefs or ideas about a particular group or category.

BIAS + STEREOTYPE = PREJUDICE

Prejudice

• Prejudgment and unfair attitude based on stereotypes, not objective assessment.

PREJUDICE + SOCIETAL LACK OF SUPPORT = DISCRIMINATION

Discrimination

• Unfair treatment or actions against individuals or groups based on characteristics.

Social Location

• Individual's position in society, influenced by factors like gender, race, class. Your place in the community.

Theoretical Perspective

• set of assumptions about reality that inform the questions we ask and the kinds of answers we arrive at as a result

• coherent set of general propositions that are used and applied as principles to explain a phenomenon

• a model for how you think about things

Sociological Perspective

• a lens to analyze, understand, and interpret complex social phenomena theoretically.

• helps us see general social patterns in the behavior of particular individuals

• encourages us to realize that society guides our thoughts and deeds (e.g. lining up)

4 Sociological Perspectives

1. Functionalism

2. Conflict Theory

3. Symbolic Interactionism

4. Social Constructionism