16.1 The Internal Structure of Cities

Urban Land Use

• Social, economic, and spatial processes determine the land-use structure of cities.

• Market forces propel dynamic changes at various scales, such as public roads or housing.

• People want to maximize their access to jobs, homes, goods, and services.

• The most valuable and accessible part of a city is its central business district, or CBD.

  • Recall bid-rent theory and how it can also apply to urban centers.

  • Land close to the CBD is the most expensive.

• Competition for accessible sites near the city center is an important determinant of land-use patterns.

  • The more accessible a location, the greater the demand for it.

  • CBDs are often found in the historic hearts of cities, the original site of settlement.

• Bidders are prepared to pay different amounts for land at various distances from the city center.

  • A business with a significant profit is more likely to be capable of buying property near the CBD.

• One shortcoming of the bid-rent theory is the assumption that a city is on a flat plane with a single center of economic opportunities.

  • Another limitation is the suggestion of consistent city transportation.

  • It also assumes values decrease equally in all directions, which is not reflected in real-life.

• The central business district is only one part of a city.

  • Cities include many different zones or areas such as residential and industrial ones.

Models of Urban Structure

• Recall that all models mentioned are generalized representations of reality that help us analyze spatial features, processes, and relationships.

Burgess Concentric-Zone Model

• Concentric-zone model: A model of urban development depicting a city growing outward from its central business district in a series of concentric rings

  • Ernest Burgess devised the concentric-zone model by studying Chicago in the 1920s.

• This model shows a city growing outward from its CBD in a series of rings.

• Most economic activity occurs in the center/CBD.

  • Here, there will likely be a major transportation hub, main offices of businesses, and headquarters.

• The ring just outside of the CBD is in transition and has mixed-land use.

  • There may be industry, factory production, light manufacturing, alongside old and dense neighborhoods.

  • This area also generally includes urban populations earning the lowest incomes, with many people in poor conditions.

  • Residents in the transition zone are often first-generation immigrants or the elderly.

• The third zone is home to the working class and is beneficially near the factory jobs in the CBD and transition zone.

  • Population density is lesser here, with people living in close, single-family dwellings.

• The next ring includes higher-value residences, largely for the middle class.

  • Its overall population density is lower than the third zone.

• The zone furthest is from the CBD is the commuter zone.

  • This ring contains expensive, single-family homes in more spacious suburban settings.

  • This zone has the lowest population density.

Hoyt Sector Model

• In 1939, Homer Hoyt sought to improve the limitations of Burgess’s concentric-zone model.

  • He added the concept of direction.

• He concluded that the general spatial arrangement was characterized better by sectors than concentric zones.

• Sector model: A model of urban development depicting a city with wedge-shaped sectors and divisions emanating from the central business district, generally along transit routes

• The city center remains the location of many commercial functions, but as the city expands, each division will extend outward in a sector.

• This assumes that working-class residential areas develop alongside light manufacturing around the CBD.

• High-class neighborhoods follow a path along transportation routes, on high ground with more space or in scenic areas.

• New middle-class housing built on the city periphery attracts people who want to move away from the city center.

  • Subsequently, lower-income groups move into the vacated urban residences.

Harris and Ullman Multiple-Nuclei Model

• Multiple-nuclei model: A model of urban development depicting a city where growth occurs around the progressive integration of multiple nodes, not around one central business district

  • Proposed in 1945, Chauncey Harris and Edward Ullman observed that most large U.S. cities don’t grow in the previously proposed ways.

• They, rather, are formed by the progressive integration of multiple focal points of a functional region, or nodes.

  • Node: The focal point of a functional region

• Harris and Ullman claimed that land use varies depending on local context.

• The location and growth of the nodes rely on four factors.

• First, highly specialized activities involve specific sites.

  • Certain activities require facilities or infrastructure and will, therefore, be located near those features.

• Second, in certain areas, related companies arrange themselves together, leading to specialized areas.

  • By clustering together, these concentrations of economic activities all have access to the same pool of resources.

  • These resources can be workers, suppliers, or information channels.

• Third, the negative consequences of commerce and industry can contribute to the formation of nodes.

  • Some activities don’t coexist well together and repel one another.

• Fourth, economic considerations influence the formation of other kinds of nodes.

  • Land close to CBDs tends to be expensive, so activities that require a significant amount of land are typically located farther from city centers.

Galactic City Model

• Galactic city model: A model of urban development depicting a city where economic activity has moved from the central business district toward loose coalitions of other urban areas and suburbs; also known as the peripheral model

  • Proposed by Pierce Lewis in the early 1980s.

• This model explains what occurred in areas that became decentralized and formed suburbs after automobile use became widespread.

• This model includes:

  • Newer business centers,

  • Internal and external edge cities located along transportation routes,

  • Edge city complexes for back offices for research and development (R&D),

  • Specialized centers for education, entertainment, sports, and convention.

• Airports are always outside of the city but well connected by radial or peripheral highways.

Assumptions and Limitations of Geographic Models

• It should be noted that many cities have aspects of more than one of these models.

• Models are, again, generalizations and therefore cannot be perfectly applied to any real city.

• Models can also be outdated, as their creators could not foresee modern innovations.

Latin American City Model

• Geographers Ernest Griffin and Larry Ford developed the Latin American city model in 1980.

• Latin American city model: A model of urban development depicting a city with with a central business district, concentric rings, a high-end commercial sector, and sections stricken by poverty; also known as the Griffin-Ford model

• It shares some similarities with the concentric-zone model and sector model.

• The traditional central market shares the CBD with a modern business center plus important religious and governmental buildings.

• A high-end commercial sector extends outward from the CBD.

  • Wealthy residents live in the blocks adjoining both sides of this “spine.”

  • The spine typically ends with what can be considered an edge city.

• A radial road—or a periferico—likely circles the city, connecting the mall with an industrial park(s).

• Outside of the elite residential sector, further from the CBD, there are residential areas of decreasing wealth.

• Other areas of mixed-quality housing in the Latin American city model are called disamenity zones.

  • Disamenity zone: A high-poverty urban area in a disadvantaged location containing steep slopes, flood-prone ground, rail lines, landfills, or industry

• Squatter settlement: An informal housing area beset with overcrowding and poverty that features temporary homes often made of wood scraps or metal sheeting

  • Squatter settlements feature temporary homes often made of wood scraps or metal sheeting.

    • Squatter settlements lack basic infrastructure and services.

    • The people who live in these settlements aren’t legally permitted to be there.

African City Model

• Many African cities have three CBDs.

  • In 1962 geographer Harm de Blij proposed the African city model.

• African city model: A model of urban development depicting a city with three central business districts, growing outward in a series of concentric rings

• The first CBD was created by colonial powers and often has a grid pattern for order and control.

• The second, more traditional CBD has curbside commerce and more simple infrastructure.

• The third is a zone for open-air markets.

• Higher-income neighborhoods are located in the CBDs, and wealth and services decrease in the outer rings.

• Squatter settlements called informal satellite townships are found along the outside of the African city model.

  • Just inside the ring where squatters live is the mining and manufacturing zone.

Southeast Asian City Model

• Southeast Asian city model: A model of urban development depicting a city oriented around a port and lacking a formal central business district, growing outward in concentric rings and along multiple nodes

  • Created by geographer T.G. McGee in 1967.

• This model states that there are two formal zones that remain constant: The port zone and a zone of intensive market gardening on the periphery.

• The remainder of a Southeast Asian city includes a variety of uses:

  • A Western commercial zone

  • Non-indigenous Asian commercial zone,

  • Mixed-land use,

  • Suburban housing,

  • Squatter settlement zones,

  • Middle density housing,

  • Wealthy residential area.

• Southeast Asian cities generally have a larger middle class than African or Latin American cities, so they have sizable suburban areas.

16.2 Urban Housing

Residential Land Use

• Residential land use varies across urban landscapes, as does the density of the population, which generally declines from the center.

• People in different economic brackets tend to live in different densities in an urban area.

  • Wealthy people tend to live in low-density places far from the CBD.

  • Historically marginalized classes are often clustered with greater density.

• Wealthier people often trade a longer commute to the CBD in preference for more living space.

• Lower-income families often cannot afford the cost of transportation, and wind up living in dense residential areas close to the city center.

  • This can create strain due to the bid-rent theory: land closer to the city center is more valuable, which is reflected by the cost of housing.

• Another way of studying urban population densities is to consider the amount of living space per person in different countries.

• A 2015 analysis of recently built homes found the following:

  • The average new home in Australia was 2,303 square feet

  • In the United States, it was 2,164 square feet,

  • In Japan it was 1,023 square feet,

  • And in urban areas of China, just 646 square feet.

• The difference in urban population density is explained by the differences in housing types.

  • For example, New York City’s boroughs are mainly comprised of single-family homes and duplexes.

  • Paris, contrastingly, is almost entirely apartment buildings.

• The lower population density in the United States reflects its history and culture.

  • Many international cities are significantly older than the United State’s cities, reflected in their land-use.

  • The older cities developed before advances in transportation, meaning all amenities needed to be within walking distance to one another.

• New homes were built around U.S. cities to accommodate people wishing to move away from the city center.

  • They left behind older homes in the city, which were filled by people with lesser means; usually a racial minority.

  • The worst housing was abandoned, leading to urban blight.

• In the 21st century, however, the desire to live and work in cities has increased.

  • In some cities these formerly abandoned urban spaces have been redeveloped.

  • These changes may represent a partial reversal of the pattern of wealthier households residing in areas of lesser density.

• Cultural values influence how densely cities develop.

  • In the U.S., people value their space and therefore like detached homes with a yard.

  • In Europe, however, attitudes differ and families are more comfortable living in close proximity to others.

• Physical geography, too, plays a role in urban density.

  • Some landscapes are simply not conducive to close housing, and therefore density is low not through choice but because of necessity.

  • The opposite is true as well; some cities are confined by natural features and therefore must live densely to contain the population.

Housing Density and Development

• Density of housing is usually described as high, medium, or low.

  • These descriptions are relative and have different meanings depending on the place.

• Broadly speaking, in high-density areas, a large number of people live on a small amount of land.

  • Recall that the bid-rent theory shows how housing density is influenced by land values: Higher-value land tends to cause higher density housing.

• Low-density housing is common in many suburban areas, which include mostly detached single-family homes.

  • Sections of a city can seem high density because other sections are low density. Remember relativity.

• Governments use various legislative tools to allow or prohibit certain land uses as well as to limit density and guide growth.

• Zoning: The process of dividing a city or urban area into zones within which only certain land uses are permitted

• Cities set their zoning according to their present and perceived future needs.

  • This may or may not create zones that reflect patterns like those in the various city models.

• Through changes in land-use planning and zoning laws, housing density can change.

• Some urban areas have embraced development, infilling, and land use changes more than others.

• Increased density offers benefits such as governments being more capable of providing high-quality services.

  • Effective public transport relies on density as people will not use the system if they have to walk far to get to a stop or station.

  • A mass-transit system also needs enough riders to sustain it financially.

  • Similarly, businesses need enough customers to provide strong services.

16.3 Urban Infrastructure

Why is Infrastructure Important?

• A well-functioning society relies on strong infrastructure, a framework that ensures high quality of life and helps people move from place to place.

  • Some experts consider infrastructure to include all services and institutions that help maintain the health, safety, economic, and social aspects of a country.

• Infrastructure includes:

  • Mass-transit systems such as subways, buses, and light rail;

  • Energy-generating facilities such as power stations, wind farms, and hydroelectric plants;

  • Power lines, Telephone cables;

  • Ports, airports, waterways, and canals;

  • Roads;

  • Water supply systems, sewage systems, and wastewater treatment facilities.

• Without operational infrastructure, disease is likely to spread and basic tasks would become difficult or impossible.

Infrastructure and Development

• Core countries with powerful economies have the best infrastructure.

  • Their wealth and expertise make it possible to invest in and build effective frameworks.

• Semi-/Peripheral countries don’t have the money for this development and as a result, many residents are unable to improve their living standards.

  • To some extent, this also exists within core and peripheral areas in one country.

• Places with the strongest infrastructure experience the most economic and social development.

  • Infrastructure helps businesses succeed because it allows them to effectively transport goods, share information, and hire from a capable labor pool.

• Infrastructure is one reason businesses and workers may relocate from one place to another.

• Solid infrastructure, because it bolsters individual businesses, is especially important to the economic vitality of a city as a whole.

• Infrastructure can be used not only to improve the economy, however, but also to make lives better and create equality.

The Political Organization of Cities

• Like countries, states, or provinces, cities are political entities with governments whose job is to meet the needs of its residents.

• Municipal—or city—governments are responsible for performing a variety of services.

  • They are expected to maintain infrastructure such as roads, sidewalks, sewer lines, and water mains.

  • Cities often also deliver services, most significantly schools.

  • They work to ensure public safety by providing police departments, fire departments, and emergency medical service (EMS) professionals.

• Issues arise when an urban area consists of many different local governments that cannot collaborate due to lack of integration.

• A lack of collaboration can arise at the regional level as well.

  • Many separate municipalities may not agree on how to solve region-wide problems.

• Fragmented governments can face difficulty when the interests of municipalities collide with the interests of the region at large.

  • This is evident in areas with a housing shortage.

  • Local governments often aim to limit growth so their infrastructure isn’t overwhelmed.

• Issues can also arise when the chain of command is interrupted by many different entities.

  • This leads to slow reaction times and accountability becoming unclear.

Qualitative Urban Data

• Cities are dynamic, and responsible governments analyze these changes and prepare for their impacts.

• Collecting data in multiple ways is one way for governments to build an understanding of how their cities are changing and how to plan.

• Qualitative research is based on descriptions and rich narratives; quantitative research is based on collecting raw, observable data.

• Qualitative research about cities generally involve questions about what people think the city is doing well, poorly, and what the city should be providing.

• Qualitative researchers document their own observations as well.

  • They may see interactions or features in the city that could be improved, or ones that are well enjoyed by the population.

• Qualitative and quantitative techniques provide a trade-off between breadth and depth.

• Many people recommend using both or a mixed-method approach.

Quantitative Urban Data

• Where qualitative research collects data on perceptions, quantitative research collects measurable and numerical data.

  • Quantitative techniques include taking measurements, examining test results, conducting questionnaires, and using data from other databases.

• Quantitative researchers begin with a question that drives a data-collection process, which can be done with primary or secondary methods.

  • Primary data is information collected directly from a source.

  • Secondary data comes from outside sources.

• Data is characteristics or information collected through observation and can be of four types:

  • Nominal data is named, labeled, or categorized data, such as type of housing: single-family detached or apartment.

  • Ordinal data has an order or rank, such as low, medium, or high income.

  • Interval data has an order and the difference between two numbers has meaning, such as temperature and year.

  • Ratio data contains all aspects of interval data but also has a true zero value, such as distance or area.

• Nominal and ordinal data is qualitative and interval and ratio data are quantitative.

• Local governments work with land-use data to understand changes in their communities and regions.

• The best way for researchers to understand communities is to combine the data types, which gives them a full picture.