New Kingdom Egypt

Background to New Kingdom Egypt

• Why was northern Egypt known as Lower Egypt and the south as Upper Egypt?

  • Because the Nile River source was in the south (upriver), while the Nile River delta was in the north (downriver)

• How was Egypt politically divided in the period preceding (before) NKE?

  • The North/Lower Egypt was ruled by foreign invaders, the Hyksos, while the South/Upper Egypt was ruled by Egyptian rulers.

• How was the reunification of Upper and Lower Egypt achieved?

  • The armies of Menes, king of Upper Egypt defeated the northern armies.

• Who were Egypt’s main neighbours in this period?

  • Nubia in the south, Libya in the west, the Mediterranean Sea in the north and Syria and Palestine in the northeast

• How did Egypt’s relations with her neighbours in the northeast differ from her relations with Nubia in the south?

  • There were treaties with Syria and Palestine (in the northeast), while there were tensions between Egypt, Nubia, and Libya.

Historical and geographical context

Internal Developments: The Hyksos

• A professional army was developed with a ‘warrior-king’ at its head. The military success of the pharaohs became an important yardstick for measuring their reign. The military became an important institution for social mobility, allowing merit and initiative to be rewarded with political posts. Military families thus came to control important administrative posts.

• Economic change was substantial with booty and trade pouring into the previously isolated Egyptian economy. Royalty and nobility experienced a period of opulence and wealth, as did the temples and priesthood who received donations from the upper classes.

• Building programs were significant. Huge impressive monuments demonstrating the power and glory of the pharaoh and the elites with one of the results of this wealth.

• Life for the lower classes remained tied to the agricultural cycles of the Nile River.

• Amun, god of the air, of the universe, chief of the god, became the nationally worshipped god. Amun and religious beliefs associated with him became paramount. The pharaoh became known as the earthly representative or ‘child’ of Amun, the temple at Karnal and the Amun priesthood became the centres of religious life.

• Foreign influence was widespread, in manufacturing processes, military technology and thought, religious ideas, royal marriages and trade.

• The expansion of the borders of Egypt meant a massive increase in the bureaucracy governing the ‘Empire’. This meant a surge in the demand for scribes and administrators, creating a new, educated middle class. It was here that priests, civil officers and army commanders could be drawn from.

• When did the Hyksos arrive in Egypt, from where and why?

  • Peoples from Syria-Palestine who had been pushed out of their homelands by invading forces from their North and East.

• At what site did the Hyksos establish their capital?

  • Avaris

• What are two major sources from antiquity used to study the period of Hyksos' rule in Egypt?

  • Manetho - Egyptian priest writing 1000 years later, and the Turin Canon - a papyrus scroll listing the names and reigns of Pharaohs.

• How were the Hyksos able to maintain their power in Egypt in the Second Intermediate Period?

  • They were more militarily advanced than the Egyptians, with horse-drawn carriages, composite bows, and bronze armour.

• What primary evidence is there to suggest that initially, Hyksos rule was tolerated by the Egyptians?

  • They adopted the Egyptian capital as their own, they used Egyptian titles, rituals, and rules in the 15th and 16th Dynasties, they maintained power and wealth through connections with Syria-Palestine and Cyprus, all of which are recorded and inferred in inscriptions by Kamose, a pharaoh from the 17th Dynasty which indicated the many Egyptians were content to let them rule the Nile Delta.

• Explain the impacts of the Hyksos on Egyptian civilization (hint- provide information regarding trade, weaponry, arts, culture, and agriculture).

  • They established connections between Egypt and Syria-Palestine and Cyprus and upgraded their military. There were new species of livestock and new crops introduced. The potter's wheel and vertical loom were introduced, revolutionizing Egypt's production of textiles and pottery.

• What is the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus and what does it have to do with the Hyksos?

  • It is a papyrus scroll written and preserved in around 3000 BCE which gives a clear perspective of the human body as studied by Egyptians with detailed doctors' notes surrounding clinical cases, examinations, and prognoses.

• According to the reading, what ultimately enabled Egyptian rulers from Thebes to regain control and reunify Lower and Upper Egypt?

  • The introduction of new weaponry, military strategies, and bronze working compensated for the technological difference between the Hyksos and the Egyptians and allowed the rulers at Thebes to gain back control of Upper and Lower Egypt and reunify Egypt.

• Summarise why the Hyksos’ influence in Egypt was so important.

  • The Hyksos introduced new technologies, new ideas, and new connections to Egypt that revolutionized many aspects of Egyptian culture and life, allowing them to technologically catch up with the Hyksos and other Near East societies. This allowed them to essentially hold their own in battle and reclaim and defend Egypt. The new industrial technologies introduced by the Hyksos allowed Egyptian goods to be prized and highly valued by surrounding societies, maintaining the diplomatic trading connections between Egypt and other societies that maintained their wealth and power.

Wars with the Hyksos

• How do primary written sources from Thebes depict the Hyksos in the second intermediate period?

• They are referred to as “Asiatics” a term meant to infer inferiority.

• What did a late nineteenth-dynasty papyrus paper reveal about the origins of the Theban war with the Hyksos?

• It was started by an antagonist ruler, for a made-up reason.

• Who was Seqenenre?

• King of Thebes in around 1560BCE

• What was the Hippopotamus affair?

• King of the Hyksos, Apophis, sent a letter from Avaris to Thebes, claiming that he had been losing sleep due to the bellowing of the hippopotami in Thebes, despite the fact the two cities were over 600kms apart. This purposefully antagonistic comment was a threat that Seqenenre could not ignore.

• Refer to the map, source A and source E: What do these sources indicate about the nature of the threat from the south to the Theban princes?

• That the threat of the Nubians was a serious concern for rulers at the time and that 

• Who was Kamose?

• The last pharaoh of the 17th Theban dynasty, he began the war to push the Hyksos invaders from Egypt.

• Refer to sources B and C:

  • What reasons does Kamose give for his planned attack?

    • Egypt is being divided and conquered by foreign invaders while he has a right to the land.

  • What does Kamose’s language reveal about his attitude to his neighbours?

    • He’s racist, believing the ‘Asiatics’ (the Hyksos) are lesser and inferior to him and the rest of Egypt.

• What reasons do the councillors give for their opposition to Kamose’s plans?

  • The portion of Egypt they control is prospering, they are safe and wealthy, with established trade even with the Hyksos, an attack is not necessary.

Role of Queens

• List the honours that Ahmose I and his wife (also sister) Ahmose- Nefertari gave to their dead grandmother, Teitsheri.

  • Lavish tomb at Thebes, monuments, a pyramid and a chapel at Abydos.

• Identify the meaning of the underlined words in Source 10 and rewrite Ahhotep’s activities in your own words.

  • Sovereign

    • a supreme ruler, especially a monarch.

  • Notables

    • a famous or important person.

  • Cohesion

    • the action or fact of forming a united whole.

  • Fugitives

    • a person who has escaped from a place or is in hiding, especially to avoid arrest or persecution.

  • Dissidents

    • a person who opposes official policy, especially that of an authoritarian state.

  • Pacified

    • quell the anger, agitation, or excitement.

  • She created a court of trusted people around her, worked with the law to punish those who opposed Egypt and created peace between Upper and Lower Egypt.

• What does source 10 reveal about Ahhotep’s role in consolidating the 18th Dynasty?

  • She was a powerful figure with control over the law, politics, and the respect of the people.

• What does the linking of Ahmose-Neferati’s name to the buildings for Tetosheri at Abydos reveal about the role of queens at this stage of the dynasty’s development?

  • They were important but also closely linked to one another, either by ignorance of those in history or by a close relationship in life.

• Compare the titles held by Tetisheri, Ahhotep the Elder and Ahmose-Nefetari. What conclusions can you draw about the developing role of queens as the 18th dynasty evolved?

  • Titles developed from that such as “wife of the pharaoh” to “mistress of upper and lower Egypt” signifying a power shift from simply the wife of a king to a joint ruler.

Amun Cult Development

• Where did the god Amun originate from and in what ways was he represented on earth?

  • Amun was one of the eight primordial Egyptian deities. Amun was the god of air and wind and it was believed he created himself and everything, but distanced himself from everything and became a sort of hidden god.

• Explain the syncretism of the Amun cult.

  • Religion, daily life, politics, and culture were all part of the same thing in the eyes of the Egyptians. The cult of Amun was one of the most powerful organizations in Egypt, with close ties to the pharaoh and his family.

• Why was the ideology of kingship established in relation to Amun Re?

  • To maintain political and religious control through one being, rather than the church and the state constantly being under threat by eachother.

• A female pharaoh of the NK period, Hatshepsut, furthered the notion of kingship through oracles. Explain the phenomena of oracles in relation to Amun Re.

  • Amun Re was a prophetic god, often linked to Apollo in Greek mythology. The establishment of Amun Re as a god of prophecy was extremely significant and his prophecies were delivered to pharaohs and priests and were used to determine the actions of Egypt.

• What was meant by the ‘divine birth of the king’ and why do you think this was important to the success of New Kingdom Pharaohs?

  • It linked the birth of a child to a pharaoh to the gods, creating an immediate early link that was used to consolidate their power and secure their status as prince and later Pharaoh.

• What do you think the consequences were of attributing military success to Amun Re for the New Kingdom?

  • It made the cult of Amun extremely powerful, leading to it not being taxed and experiencing massive benefits as successes, both military and political, were attributed to the cult.

• Explain the role of the Amun priesthood and suggest reasons why its members became so influential.

  • The priesthood performed ceremonies in the name of the Pharaoh and the name of the Gods, ensuring approval from said gods, which then was attributed to the successes in Egypt as a whole, which portrayed the cult as the root of Egyptian prominence and power.

• What was the role of God's Wife of Amun?

  • She served as the head priestess in the cult of Amun, essentially giving the Pharaoh a direct line of connection to the cult, which helped ensure they wouldn’t get too big for their boots.

• How were royal women able to exercise power through holding the title of God's wife of Amun?

  • As the head priestess of the most significant cult in all of Egypt, the royal women were able to take credit for successes in Egypt, making them almost as powerful as the pharaoh himself. It also protected her, as actions against her were actions against the most powerful cult in Egypt, and against the pharaoh and the gods themselves.

Amun Cult Importance

• Amuns position in Egypt:

• Associated with the kingship as 'father' of the ruling monarch.

• Influenced the succession by 'approving' the next king.

• Credited with all military successes and the growth of the empire.

• Credited with advising the king on military strategy and protecting him in battle.

• Credited with approving all administrative decisions.

• Credited with directing successful trade expeditions.

• Received rich donations in the form of tribute, booty and trade products.

• Honoured with large-scale building projects, particularly at Karnak

• Honoured with special festivals e.g. Festival of Opet.

• Festivals and what happened when they were celebrated

  • Festival of Opet

    • An annual ancient Egyptian festival celebrated in Thebes (Luxor), especially in the New Kingdom and later periods, during the second month of the season of Akhet, the flooding of the Nile.

    • A ritual procession of the barque (a ceremonial boat used to transport statues of gods and deities) of the cult statue of “Amun-Re, supreme god, his wife Mut, and his son Khons.”

  • Beautiful Festival of the Valley

    • A celebration of the dead

    • The statues of the gods Amun, Mut, and Khonsu (the Theban Triad) were taken across the river from Karnak Temple to visit the mortuary temples on the West Bank.

    • People would visit their deceased loved ones and bring them gifts.

  • What role was played by Amun and his family

    • They were protectors of the Pharaoh and Gods of Egypt, representing aspects of Egyptian life and culture

  • How did the pharaohs of this period made religious and political use of them

    • They were used to prove a pharaohs right to rule, to justify decisions, and as oracle voices.

Building Programs

Role of Pharaohs

Ahmose

• Expelled the Hyksos, reunified Egypt

• Brother of Kamose & first king of the New kingdom

• Ascended power as a child, his mother Ahotep putting down rebellions

• Later liberated Egypt from the Hyksos

• Military successes are recorded in the tomb of Ahmose, son of Ebana suggests a series of raids occured & a siege against Hyksos lasted years

• Campaigned in Palestine and drove out Hyksos, as a warning to the princes in Palestine/Syria

• Campaigned in northern Nubia, defeating the prince there

• Faced Egyptian rebellions but put them down successfully

Amenhotep I 

• First to expand Egypt's borders, empire building

• Son of Ahmose and Nefertiri

• First pharaoh of the New Kingdom to establish deliberate policy of expansion

• Introduced fortifications to protect territorial gains

• Established bureaucracies in conquered lands, each given title of 'kings son'

• Effectively utilised the navy to transport soldiers along the Red sea

• First to properly introduce the concept of empire (Nubia in the West, Libya in the North/East)

• Rebuilt forts to protect Nubian border

• Ahmose, son of Ebana (soldier) claimed he was with Amenhotep I during the raid on Nubia to "extend the borders of Egypt"

Thutmose I

• Warrior Pharaoh, ruthless and intelligent

• Hatshepsut's father

• Highly regarded, intelligent, ruthless, pious, very capable

•  Genuinely impressive military man, stimulated Warrior Pharaoh image Successful expansion of Egyptian Empire into 3rd cataract of the Nile

• “His sword touches both ends of the earth" - Ahmose, son of Eb

• First to be buried in Valley of the Dead

• Incorporates Nubia into Empire, and defeats Syria in battle Redevelops Karnak temple complex

Thutmose II

• Sick boy, short reign

• Short reign, probably suffered from illness

• Managed to stop a serious rebellion in Nubia and an uprising in Palestine

• Added to Karnak

Hatshepsut 

• Peacemaker, expanded ideology of kingship, extensive building program

• Mother of Ahmose Nefertiri

• Most powerful female figure of the period

• Took over after her husband Thutmose II

• 21 year reign of peace, prosperity, and growth

• Co-regent for Thutmose III (her step-son)

• Conducted extensive building programs

• Developed Ideology of Kingship; Oracles and Divine Birth

• Conducted a huge trading expedition to Punt successfully

Thutmose III

• Warrior Pharaoh "Greatest military leader"

• 54 year rule

• Son of Thutmose II, step-son and initially coregent of Hatshepsut before sole rule

• Unquestionably the greatest military leader of ancient Egypt" (J.H. Breasted)

• Carried out 17 military campaigns in the Near East to regain Palestine and Syria and to punish rebellious princes.

• Expanded Egypt's borders the furthest they would reach, managed to consolidate beyond the 4th cataract

• Ambitions to copy the exploits of his famous grandfather, Thutmose I

• Peaceful, prosperous, stable reign

• Details of campaigns focus on booty/tribute

• Successes are evident from lack of military operations after big battles he conducted

• Developed strategies for dealing with Mitanni, which revealed his political abilities.

→Important evidence of reign ←

• Annals (documents used to record the reigns of kings) recount victory at Megiddo

• Inscriptions in the Karnak red granite chamber; historians believe the information regarding Thut III military campaigns are quite factual. "Most complete, account of military achievements of an Egyptian king (J.h Breasted)

• Gebel Barkal stela in Nubia details of Megiddo victory, and other conquests by Thutmose III

• Tomb biographies of general Amenemhab, who worked closely with Thut II provide evidence for his reign

Amenhotep II

• "Gifted athlete"

• Possible coregency prior to accession

• Trained as a priest in his youth (Sir Alan Gardiner) and became the High Priest of Amun

• Learnt the skills of a scribe and archer

• Supervised the training of horses and was a very gifted rider

• Great Sphinx Stela expert in "all the arts of Montn" the God of War

• Horus name = Mighty bull appearing in Thebes, great of strength

• There are many references to his sportsmanship and physical prowess

• “Strength is so much greater than any king who ever existed” (JA Wilson)

• Extensive empire with great amounts of tribute allowed for extensive building programs

Thutmose IV

• Expert in diplomacy

• “Peace maker" = creates 65 years of peace with Mitanni, their greatest enemy

• Used treaty and marriage to form alliances with Mitami

• Consolidated and strengthened the physical gains of his father

• Put down some small rebellions

• Had to deal with the new threat from Hittites, a developing world power

• Mitanni & Egypt, past enemies, unite against common Hittite threat, which was able to happen in large part through marriage of the two ruling families

• Dream Stelae recounts Amun visiting Thut IV

Prominent Officials

Role of the Army

• How did the purpose and structure of the army change by the 18th dynasty?

  • The policies of expansion created the need for a professional army. Rather than summoning peasants and regular people to take up arms when necessary, the pharaoh created a professional army, with people trained specifically to fight as a full-time job.

• What contribution did Hyksos military technology make to the effectiveness of the Egyptian army?

  • They were highly skilled archers, and the introduction of their more efficient bows was highly beneficial to the Egyptian army’s strength in battle.

• Outline the composition and tactics of the early New Kingdom army.

  • Pharaoh was the chief of the army, and usually, his son or a prince was the second in command. Archers formed a first line, to break the enemy advance, then mass ranks of infantry were used to complete the slaughter.

• What role did the infantry, chariotry and navy play in New Kingdom warfare?

  • Infantry was the second line of attack, with short-range weapons, chariotry was used to pursue fleeing soldiers or small groups, and the navy was used to transport soldiers and occasionally used in naval battles with troops of archers and ramming.

• Describe the career opportunities that were offered by non-combat roles within the army. Who was eligible for these roles?

  • Soldiering became a full-time job, and career soldiers could be rewarded with administrative roles in foreign places as physical protection of Egyptian interests.

• Methods of fighting

  • Highly ranked soldiers such as Ahmose, son of Ebana, fought beside the king as a sort of personal guard.

• Role of foot soldiers, marines and chariotry

  • Foot soldiers/infantry used short-range weapons to slaughter the enemy, marines transported the king and military to battles, and chariotry was used to attack fleeing soldiers

• Treatment of the enemy

  • Taken as slaves, given as prizes, slaughtered

• Rewards

  • Golden bracelets, necklaces, armlets, daggers, golden flies and axes, as well as administrative and democratic roles in local and foreign governments/courts

• Relationship with the Pharaoh

  • High-ranking soldiers could serve as a sort of king's guard, low-ranking soldiers were also extremely loyal to the pharaoh as he was king, but also army leader.

Relations with Nubia, Syria-Palestine, Mitanni

• Egypt’s relationship with Nubia: deliberate policy of control and ‘Egyptianisation’:

• During middle kingdom Egypt established a more permanent presence, building fortresses between the second and third cataracts

• Old kingdom Egypt traded with Nubia

• Pharaohs motivated in their relations to nubia by

• Safe access to key resources and tax payments

• Valuable resources - gold, copper, building materials and semiprecious stones (prized by Egyptians)

• The potential for taxes from Nubian tribes and other exotic goods from tropical africa: frankincense and Myrrh, ebony, ivory and animals skins, ostrich feathers and slaves

• To ensure continual supply of these products, the regions of nubia and all connecting desert routes had to be under Egyptian control

• Border Security

• Need to secure Egypt’s borders. The warlike Kerma tribe of Kush as allies of the Hyksos had already threatened Egyptian territory. Most of the Egyptian kings were forced to campaign in Nubia at the beginning of their reigns as the native tribes saw a new ruler as a chance to rebel. 

• Explain why the relationship between Egypt and Nubia versus Egypt and Syria-Palestine was different.

• Nubia was a warrior state, and at the time, the pharaohs were focused on establishing power and displays of strength, rather than diplomacy and international friendship. However, with the relationship Syria-Palestine, they were facing the threat of the Hittites in the North, which was a common threat and neither Egypt nor the city-states of Syria-Palestine did not have the resources to defend against them, so it was in their shared best interests to build a diplomatic relationship to defend against the threat posed by the Hittites.

• Why was the situation in Syria-Palestine and subsequently Egypt's relationship with the region much more complicated than with Nubia?

• Nubia was more or less one power, while Syria-Palestine was divided up into a number of wealthy city-states.

• Explain the relationship between Egypt and Mitanni and explain how it changed.

• The invasions and wars launched by Thutmose III significantly weakened Mittani, allowing the Hittites to come to power. Faced with a new, greater threat, they teamed up and Amenhotep III married a Mittani princess to solidify their new alliance.

• Why was Egypt so threatened by Mitanni?

• They were switching alliances between a number of city-states in Syria-Palestine which weakened Egypt's strength in the region, and they became a barrier between Egypt and the Hittites. If they sided with the Hittites there was a threat of a major invasion from the combined forces.

Military campaigns: Nubia/SP

• What fuelled relations with Syria-Palestine before the New Kingdom Period?

  • Trading interests as Syria-Palestine served as a gateway to further East and North, as well as being a highly valuable and fertile area.

• Why did Egypt establish fortresses along the Egyptian/Palestinian border in the Middle Period?

  • To protect its Northeastern border and to facilitate trade, for products including turquoise, gold and copper from Sinai, silver from Anatolia (Turkey) and cedar from Lebanon. 

• What evidence suggests that Egypt’s foreign policy in Syria-Palestine was motivated by political AND economic interests?

  • The cataloguing of the treasure owned by the royal family upon the ascension of the new dynasty, following the defeat of the Hyksos.

• Why was control over the Syrian city of Kadesh of central importance to the Egyptians?

  • Because it was a central city, and one of the most powerful, as well as an extremely significant trading city, in the region.

• What was the dynamic between the various city-states within Syria-Palestine in the early New Kingdom period?

  • There was a web of alliances between weaker and more powerful cities, as both Mitanni in the North and Egypt in the South vied for control over the region.

• Outline the three major stages of Egypt’s military policy towards Syria-Palestine.

  • Border protection under Ahmose to Hatshepsut, expansionism by Thutmose III, and finally diplomacy and empire maintenance by Amenhotep II and Thutmose IV.

• Which pharaohs were the most active in Syria-Palestine and what did each aim to achieve?

  • Thutmose III, who launched 17 individual campaigns into Syria-Palestine with the aim of expansion. Amenhotep II, who continued the expansionism of Thutmose III, and then sought out diplomatic relations, which was finalized by Thutmose IV, who married a Mitanni princess. This brought an end to the years of conflict and brought about a 65-year peace between the two powers, leaving Egypt with a maintained sphere of influence extending into Syria-Palestine.

• Thutmose III launched 17 campaigns in Syria-Palestine. What are some key primary sources that provide evidence for these campaigns?

  • The Annals and a number of victory, and commemorative stelas, as well as inscriptions at Karnak and Napata.

• Why did Thutmose III regard the Battle of Megiddo as one of his most important achievements?

  • As it was a great strategic success, and secured his image of the Warrior Pharaoh. It was a significant step in securing Egyptian control and dominance in the Syria-Palestine region.

• Explain how Egyptian foreign policy in Syria-Palestine changed by the rule of Amenhotep II.

  • After consolidating the successes of Thutmose III, Amenhotep began diplomatic relations with the Mitanni in Syria-Palestine, resulting in a marriage alliance under the reign of the next pharaoh, Amenhotep II.

• Using the sequence chart (separate handout) of the Megiddo campaign of Thutmose III, construct a dot-point summary of the battle. 

Imperialism and maintenance of empire

• Are the main features of imperialism evident in Egyptian relations with Syria-Palestine? Which are and which are not?

  • For the most part, no. Permanent military control/creation of colonies was not present, nor was the economic exploitation of the colonies, nor the imposition of Egyptian culture, however, control/administration by governors was partially present, as Egyptian administrators were installed in the courts of Syria-Paliestine to maintain Egyptian interests.

• How does the term ‘sphere of influence’ differ from imperialism?

  • Sphere of influence implies control through diplomacy, rather than imperialism which implies military control.

• What were the main reasons Egypt expanded its borders and conducted wars of conquest?

  • To create a sphere of influence and benefit Egypt. They used their colonies and sphere of influence to collect taxes and resources and to bulk up their army in conflicts.

• Explain in your own words the Egyptian concept of divine kingship.

• A concept that meant the king was the rightful king as decreed by god, and they were destined to fulfil a predetermined role

• Kemp suggests that inscriptions and scenes of conquest should be seen as religious rather than imperial statements. What evidence does he use to support his argument?

• That this is an element in the divine kingship, great scenes of victory were proof of the king's god-given right to rule.

• According to sources 20 and 21, why is it difficult to reach a firm conclusion about the nature of Egyptian imperialism?

  • Because of the primary sources we have, which are either dramatic royal texts or poetic texts, both of which don’t describe the nature of control as it likely actually was.

• Using the ‘main features of imperialism’ checklist, what features of imperialism apply to Egyptian policy in: 

  • Nubia

• Military occupation, control and administration, economic exploitation, imposition of Egyptian culture

• Syria-Palestine

• Control and administration to some degree, varied amongst the many different city-states

• What are some negative stereotypes of Nubians and Asiatics used by the Egyptians?

• That they were savages, backwards, troglodytes, uneducated, and murderous.

• Summarise your understanding of Egyptian imperialism in the table below, use the additional readings on google classroom to add detail:

Research how the pharaohs Amenhotep II and Thutmose IV maintained the borders of Egypt.

Warrior Pharaoh Image

• What roles was the pharaoh supposed to perform in line with the warrior pharaoh's image?

  • leading his soldiers into battle and returning in victory

  • attacking the enemy while riding in his chariot

  • wearing war regalia, for example, the blue war crown or other pharaonic headdress

  • depicted larger than life-size, holding one or more of the enemy with one hand, while he clubs

  • their brains out with a mace (also known as ‘smiting the enemy’)

  • in the guise of a sphinx, trampling his enemies underfoot

  • offering the spoils of war to the god Amun, the inspiration for his victory.

• What was the Armant Stela of Thutmose III?

  • The Armant Stela of Thutmose III was set up as a record of the mighty deeds of the king in which both his military and his sporting achievements might be preserved.

• Use figures 21 and 22 on the reading to describe the weapons used by the pharaoh, the pharaonic headdress, the depiction of the pharaoh in relation to those around him and the depiction of the enemy.

  • He wears the double crown, legs placed in a wide, walking stance, signifying strength and power, and he is holding an elaborate pike in figure 21. In figure 22, he is also depicted with the double crown, riding in a chariot lead by two horses with elaborate headwear. He wields an Egyptian bow and wears a decorated necklace that drapes across his chest. His stance is also wide, which signifies strength and certainty.