Sub-Saharan African Societies

When you think of Africa, do you think of the Sahara? This vast desert divides the enormous continent into two parts: North and East Africa and sub-Saharan Africa. More than , years ago, a group of people in western Africa started migrating throughout sub-Saharan Africa, spreading their language and culture.

Sub-Saharan African Societies

Africa is a large continent with an area greater than that of the United States, Europe, and China combined. It is also a land of varying climate zones. The northern coast of Africa borders the Mediterranean Sea and is separated from southern regions by the mighty Sahara. Immediately to the south of the Sahara is a semidesert region called the Sahel . South of the Sahel is the savanna , an area of fertile grasslands, followed by rain forest, more savanna, and the Kalahari Desert near the southern tip of Africa.

You have already learned about Africa’s earliest civilizations in Egypt and Nubia. You have also read about the spread of Islam in North Africa. In fact, much of what we know about early North and East Africa comes from accounts by Arab travelers.

Historians know less about early sub-Saharan Africa since few Arab travelers entered the region before the year 1000. Instead, they must look at evidence from archaeological excavations, oral traditions, and the distribution of languages. Africans today speak nearly 2,000 languages, or about one-third of all the world’s languages. The languages fall into a few main language categories. Speakers of Arabic in North Africa and of Amharic in East Africa, for example, speak languages that are part of the wider Afrasian family. Many West Africans speak languages of the Niger-Congo family. The Bantu languages are part of that family, and Bantu speakers would have a huge impact on sub-Saharan Africa.

Bantu means “people” and is a general name for many different peoples of Africa who speak more than 500 different languages yet share a common ancestry. By studying the different Bantu languages, linguists—people who study human speech—know that the Bantu originated in western Africa around present-day Nigeria and Cameroon. Research suggests that speakers of Bantu languages began moving east and south from their original homes as early as 1000 B.C.E. Over generations, these Bantu societies developed differences in their speech, culture, and mode of living. For example, those groups who moved south into the rain forest focused on crops that were successful in a warm and humid atmosphere. People who moved east encountered cattle-herding peoples in the Nile River Valley from whom they borrowed a focus on cattle-herding. In western and southern Africa, farming and cattle-herding went together.

Bantu societies were skilled in agriculture and ironworking and brought these technologies with them as they migrated. Recall that farming supports much denser populations than hunting and gathering. This innovation is why the Bantu moving both south into the rain forest and east across savanna lands either absorbed the ancient hunting and gathering societies they found in those places or forced such foragers to move to more remote areas. By the 400s, Bantu societies had come to southern Africa, a frontier of settlement almost 4,000 miles in distance.

EARLY AFRICAN WAYS OF LIFE

All African societies, including those of Bantu speakers, used oral traditions to remember the past as a guide to the present. In some West African societies, there was even a special class of oral historians known as griots who passed historical knowledge from father to son across the centuries. When historians began studying the stories of the griots in the 20th century, they found that they could learn a great deal about the African past that had previously not been known outside Africa.

The core of African life lay in the village. Usually, residents of a village belonged to a lineage , descendants from a common ancestor. The residents’ lineage defined their rights and responsibilities. It was the elders of the lineage who made the most important decisions. Over time, groups of lineages might come together to form clans, larger networks that might include thousands of people. Similarly, related clans might sometimes band together and accept a chief or king as their common leader. However powerful African kings might become, for many people the most important thing was still their lineage and clan.

Like most farming societies, African villages were patriarchal. Men had more power and authority than women. Men usually did jobs that were considered more prestigious, such as hunting, working with metals, participating in military conquests, looking after cattle, and trading. Women more often did the tough day-to-day work of farming, gathering wild fruits and vegetables, carrying water, gathering wood, and preparing meals. But it was also true that in many village societies, older women, as elders, had a voice in decision-making. Women often had their own councils where they made decisions to protect women’s interests. In some African kingdoms, there was even an official role for the Queen Mother, a person nearly equal in power to the king.

A man with many children and great wealth was a “great man.” Great men often became leaders of clans or groups of clans that formed chiefdoms or kingdoms. Additional conquests might expand the kingdom even further. In the next lesson, you will learn about two powerful kingdoms that grew out of this practice—Ghana and Mali.

Ghana and Mali

Location! Location! Location! is often said to be the key to economic success. The early history of West Africa supports the idea that people can profit from their location. West African kingdoms and empires flourished based on their ideal trade positions.

THE RISE OF THE KINGDOM GHANA

Around 300, a people called the Soninke (sah-NEENG-kay) lived in small agricultural villages in West Africa. Their location was ideal for economic growth. To the north lay mines filled with salt, important for flavoring food and maintaining health. Directly south were mines filled with gold. Both gold and salt proved to be valuable commodities and brought wealth to the Soninke.

Over time, Soninke clans joined together under a strong leader to form the kingdom of Ghana. By the 500s, the kingdom’s location on the Niger River allowed its people to become intermediaries , or go-betweens, in the salt–gold trade. The king of Ghana established a taxation system for collecting fees for all goods going in and out of the regions he ruled. He carefully monitored the amount of gold that flowed through his lands. All gold nuggets were possessions of the king, and only gold dust could be traded. In this way, Ghana gained a monopoly , or sole control, over gold and its trade and became a wealthy empire by 800.

In the mid-1000s, the Muslim historian al-Bakri reported that the capital of Ghana, Koumbi-Saleh (KUHM-bee SAHL-uh), was actually two towns in one. One part was Islamic, filled with mosques as well as Muslim traders and scholars. The other part was where the king, nobles, and the common people practiced a polytheistic religion, involving a belief in many gods. The common people made their living mainly through farming, fishing, herding, and craftmaking. Though often rich, traders in Ghana received little respect because they did not produce a product.

In the 11th century, the Islamic Almoravid dynasty in the north was on the rise. From their base in Morocco, the Almoravids competed with Ghana for control of valuable resources like salt. The kings of Ghana resisted Almoravid attacks, but by 1075, they lost control of Koumbi-Saleh. The kingdom went into sharp decline.

SUNDIATA AND THE MALI EMPIRE

The people under the control of Ghana had begun to rebel as the kingdom weakened. Among them were the Malinke (meh-LING-kay), whose rulers would later establish an even more powerful kingdom. It was the griots, custodians of Malinke oral traditions, who kept alive the story of Sundiata (sun-JAHT-ah), a sickly prince who gained the strength to lead his people to victory.

The Epic of Sundiata begins with his mother, Sogolon. Sogolon had married the Malinke king, and she delivered a disabled son who could not even raise himself from the ground. She and Sundiata suffered humiliating insults and were finally driven away. Then one day, according to the griots, a blacksmith with magical powers gave young Sundiata an iron rod that he used to raise himself and stand. Sundiata returned and took his father’s kingdom, Sogolon was showered with wealth, and the Mali Empire rose to power.

Starting from these beginnings in about the 1230s, the Mali Empire grew until it stretched from West Africa’s Atlantic coast to the rich lands of the upper Niger River, where the city of Timbuktu became a center of trade and learning. After Sundiata, a mansa , or ruler, converted to Islam, and the later emperors of Mali oversaw the religious, political, and economic aspects of the large empire. While the mansas practiced Islam, they did not force their subjects to convert to Islam, and many subjects retained their traditional religion. To keep political order, the mansas hired well-educated Muslims as administrators. Local rulers who sent tribute were allowed to retain much of their authority. Yet the mansa’s standing army made sure no one overstepped the central government’s power.

Both the farming of crops such as millet, rice, and sorghum and the herding of sheep, goats, and camels were important economic activities in Mali. However, trade brought riches to the mansas and allowed them to maintain the government. All trade items that passed through the empire were heavily taxed, including the goods that crossed the Sahara, as you will learn later in this chapter.

Great Zimbabwe

Consider how various peoples of the past have demonstrated their authority and strength. Some formed fierce armies, while others built ornate palaces. Some spread news of great feats through messages on stone pillars. The early rulers of southeastern Africa announced the power of their kingdoms through massive stone structures.

GREAT STONE HOUSES

As you have already learned, groups of Bantu speakers migrated throughout sub-Saharan Africa. One group settled as far south as the high plateau beyond the Zambezi River. There, the Shona people established the state that reached its greatest extent in the early 1300s. Its center was the imposing capital city known as Great Zimbabwe. That spot was likely chosen as the location of the capital because of its mild climate and fertile soil as well as its strategic position. Great Zimbabwe was situated along a much-traveled trade route that carried gold and other items. Taxes collected on goods that passed through Great Zimbabwe brought enormous wealth to its leaders.

Like many other Bantu settlers in sub-Saharan Africa, the Shona lived as cattle herders and farmers. They made efficient use of iron tools in their day-to-day life. Before 1000, most people lived in small villages of houses made from wood beams. Then some villagers became rich enough to build their own stone structures. By the 13th and 14th centuries, the population of the region had reached 10,000. The villagers built some 300 stone enclosures, or areas surrounded by walls, across the plateau. The term for these enclosures in the Shona language is Zimbabwe, or “place of stone houses.” This word is the source of the name of the present-day nation of Zimbabwe, where the structures are located. The largest of these enclosures, Great Zimbabwe, prospered for about 250 years.

After 1450, the inhabitants of Great Zimbabwe deserted their walled complex. Perhaps they had depleted natural resources by cutting down forests for fuel to make iron. Perhaps their population grew too large for the area. The shifting of trade routes also contributed to the demise of Great Zimbabwe.

STUDYING THE RUINS

The ruins of Great Zimbabwe cover almost 1,800 acres near the modern city of Masvingo. One point of interest at the site is the Great Enclosure, a large circular wall that is 15 feet thick and more than 30 feet tall. It is the largest single stone structure in sub-Saharan Africa built before 1500. One estimate holds that it might have taken 400 workers four years to complete the project. In any case, the remains of the wall show the skill of those who built it. It is made of evenly cut granite blocks placed so closely together that mortar was not necessary. The Great Enclosure was reserved for the ruler and other elites, keeping them separate from the common people.

Since the people of Great Zimbabwe did not keep written records, oral traditions and archaeological finds provide the only sources of information about their way of life. Of special interest to scholars is the discovery of a hoard, or a hidden supply of stored items, unearthed at one of the smaller enclosures. The hoard included Chinese ceramics, beads from India, and colorful Persian plates. Other artifacts at the site indicate that skilled Shona craftworkers created fine gold jewelry. All these discoveries provide evidence of participation in trade networks. In fact, East African traders were exporting the gold of Great Zimbabwe to Indian Ocean markets and bringing valuable goods back in return. Archaeologists have found fine porcelain from Ming China at the site of Great Zimbabwe, reminding them of the voyages of Zheng He.

Africans are proud of the architectural achievement of Great Zimbabwe, so much so that when they gained their independence and had a chance to pick a new name, the people of this region chose Zimbabwe

Traveler: Ibn Battuta The Longest-Known Journey 

 –No two places are alike, even if they share many characteristics and are united under a single ruler. Sometimes, it is only possible to discern the differences and similarities through firsthand observation. World travelers do just that. They make extended trips to discover what makes each place on Earth unique and what ties various places together.

WHERE HE WENT

Ibn Battuta is remembered today for his invaluable descriptions of the Muslim world. As a 20-year-old legal scholar, the young Muslim had no idea that he would become a world traveler. At first, he embarked from his home in Tangier, Morocco, to make the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca, fulfilling one of the Five Pillars of Islam. It was only after this pilgrimage that he decided to continue traveling, with no fixed destination and no set time of return. He spent the next 29 years following the trade routes that knit the Islamic world together. After his journey, Ibn Battuta dictated his adventures to another writer to create a book called The travels.

In all, Ibn Battuta traveled about 75,000 miles throughout the Dar-al-Islam, which you learned was Arabic for “abode of Islam.” His journey led him to Egypt; Muslim-ruled areas of Spain, Arabia, Persia; and south into India. He traveled along China’s Pacific coast with Muslim sea merchants, and he toured the northern and eastern coasts of Africa. He explored deep into West Africa. He traveled on foot, rode camels and donkeys, and sailed by boat.

To finance his journey, Ibn Battuta relied on donations from other Muslims. The Five Pillars encourage donations not only to people living in poverty but also to travelers. Ibn Battuta’s dependence on Muslim support kept him from venturing beyond the realm of Islam. For example, he never visited the majestic Great Zimbabwe, which you read about in the last lesson. But he did visit the African Muslim cities on the Indian Ocean coast. You will read more about them later.

WHAT HE SAW

During his long journey, Ibn Battuta frequently accompanied Muslim merchants on established land and sea routes. His reports include descriptions of trade items, trade processes, and the people he met along the way. It appears that he mainly encountered rulers, high-ranking judges, and religious leaders. His account includes many details about political events, ways of governing, and social interactions with male Muslims. Little is mentioned of local economies or the ways of life of women and non-Muslims.

Ibn Battuta was the first traveler to record an eyewitness description of sub-Saharan Africa. Some of the details you read earlier about the Mali Empire are known only because of Ibn Battuta’s eyewitness account. For example, Ibn Battuta describes a grueling 25-day trip to get to Mali with a caravan , or group of people who travel together. He also describes the city of Timbuktu.

A devout Muslim, Ibn Battuta was shocked at the ways in which the people of Mali practiced Islam. For example, he disapproved of the fact that women were not secluded. However, he was pleased that many people worshiped at mosques and memorized the Quran. He also witnessed and approved of the stern punishment inflicted on children who failed at their Quranic lesson.

You read in a previous chapter that the people of Arabia were the first people to practice Islam. Ibn Battuta believed this region was a model for how Islam should be practiced. Many legs of Ibn Battuta’s journey would not have been possible 300 years earlier. By 1450, however, West and East Africa were important stops along trade routes within the broader Islamic world. You will learn more about these early trade routes in the next lesson.

Trans-Saharan Trade

Throughout history, people have taken risks in hopes of receiving rewards for their efforts. Traders in Africa trekked through the harsh Sahara for weeks at a time to gain wealth from the trade of West African resources.

THE SALT, GOLD, AND SLAVE TRADE

You read about how Sundiata founded the Mali Empire. His wealthiest successor was Mansa Musa, who ruled from 1307 to 1332. On a trip to Cairo during a hajj, Mansa Musa made a grand display of his riches. Early sources say that 500 captives marched in front of him, each carrying a gold walking stick. One hundred camels transported the leader’s travel money—700 pounds of gold—which he spent freely. In Cairo, legend says, he spent so much that he flooded the market with gold and seriously reduced the value of the Egyptian currency.

Mansa Musa had gained his wealth through taxes on trade that passed through the empire along the trans-Saharan trade network , a set of well-established trade routes across the Sahara. Crossing the Sahara to reach Mali required weeks of travel over scorching sand. Travelers from the north risked this trip because of the salt and gold they could acquire in Mali. Some towns in Mali seemed to overflow with salt, which was highly valued in places where it was scarce. In other locations, gold was a prized commodity. Mining gold was profitable but dangerous, as mines often collapsed. However, farmers were willing to mine the mineral to add to their income.

In addition to exchanging salt and gold, the people of Mali also participated in the slave trade. An estimated 5,500 enslaved people crossed the desert yearly. The slave traders of Mali did not enslave people from their own country. Instead, they captured people in the forest belt to the south and sold them across the desert to Arab traders.

Other people of West Africa envied Mali’s wealth. Armored soldiers on horseback captured major cities, including Timbuktu. By 1450, the neighboring Songhai (SAHNG-gy) people, who had also gained riches through trade, had conquered Mali and claimed rulership over many West African societies. You will learn more about the Songhai in a later chapter.

MAMLUK TRADE NETWORKS

You learned about the ruler Saladin, who had founded a new dynasty in Egypt in the 12th century and retook Jerusalem from the Crusaders. His dynasty was replaced by the Mamluks (MAM-looks). They started as enslaved Turkish soldiers. Once the Mamluks converted to Islam, they were granted freedom, and some gained high positions in the military and in government. In 1250, they gained control of Egypt and established their own dynasty. Soon, the Mamluk Empire extended to include Syria. The Mamluks would retain control of these lands until 1517.

As converts to the faith, the Mamluks took the defense of Islam very seriously, reviving the faith after the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258. The new government of the Mamluks was based in Cairo and led by a sultan. Many Muslims, especially Muslim scholars, poured into the city. With its many colleges, called madrasas, Cairo replaced Baghdad as the cultural center for Islam. Cairo grew to become one of the largest cities of the day, with a population of more than 400,000 people. It was this impressive city that was visited by both Mansa Musa and Ibn Battuta.

During this time, North Africa continued to be the end African destination for salt, gold, and captives from West Africa. From there, other traders transported the trade items and enslaved people to markets in Europe and Asia across the Mediterranean. Traders also transported goods to locations on the Indian Ocean by way of the Red Sea. In return, products such as Chinese silk and spices from India reached North Africa.Eventually, such problems as drought, government corruption, and the bubonic plague caused severe economic distress. To keep his government going, the Mamluk sultan increased taxes on trade. Traders looked elsewhere for the items they desired. By the early 1500s, the Mamluks had lost control of their lands.

Africa’s Eastern Networks

While African resources flowed through North Africa to Europe across the Mediterranean, another trade network bustled to the east. This set of trade routes spanned the Indian Ocean and was driven primarily by Muslim traders and sultans.

INDIAN OCEAN TRADE

Varied lands and people surrounded the Indian Ocean long ago. The East African coast, the southern edge of the Arabian Peninsula, the Persian Gulf, and the west coast of India had various languages, cultures, and political units. Yet all the city-states and larger political units surrounding the large body of water joined together as part of the Indian Ocean trade network. Just as rulers of North and West Africa taxed overland trade, so too did the sultans of these coastal regions tax Indian Ocean sea trade. Sultanates, the territories governed by the sultans, could be as small as a single city-state or as large as a kingdom. For example, small Muslim sultanates dotted East Africa’s coast, while an enormous Muslim kingdom prospered in northern India.

The people of these three regions traveled the Indian Ocean on ships called dhows (dows), boats with triangular sails that were common in the Arab world. These early vessels carried goods between ports, much like camels of the desert. Dhows had no deck, so passengers sat and slept next to the ships’ cargo. Indian Ocean winds powered the boats as they beat against their large sails. Little human labor was required on these voyages, so traders and their families staffed their own boats. As people of three regions traveled to other lands, they often intermarried, bringing about a mixing of cultures.

One such culture was that of the Swahili (swah-HEE-lee) people. The ancestors of the Swahili were Bantu-speaking migrants who settled on the east coast of Africa. As they interacted with traders from other lands, they borrowed words from Arabic, Farsi, and the Indian language Gujarati. The Swahili converted to Islam and began to focus more on trade than farming.

One important trading city was Kilwa, located on a small island off the coast of present-day Tanzania. Among Kilwa’s main exports were gold from interior regions like Great Zimbabwe, elephant tusks, and captives. Many goods from Africa’s interior traveled to ocean ports, then to Kilwa, and on to their final destination. Kilwa was just one of about 40 East African trading settlements where African resources were traded for goods such as spices, beads, silk and cotton cloth, and porcelain from other locations. People who participated in trade were highly regarded in society.

THE KINGDOM OF ETHIOPIA

Another East African society with wider connections was the kingdom of Ethiopia. In this mountainous region, the rulers had long been Christians. Though later encircled by Muslim-dominated societies, Ethiopians held fast to their ancient Coptic form of the Christian faith, which was connected to the Eastern Orthodox Church. Ethiopian priests, monks, and nuns still use their own sacred script, called Ge’ez (gee-EHZ), for religious purposes. When Christian pilgrims arrived in Jerusalem during the Middle Ages, they found Ethiopian visitors there as well.

One of the most famous churches in Africa is St. George’s Church at Lalibela, built by an Ethiopian king in the 1200s. Instead of building the church upward, the king had his architects design the Lalibela church to be dug out of the rock, below ground. You will learn more about this church and others like it in the next lesson.

The Christian kings of Ethiopia even traced their ancestry back to the Hebrew Bible. The Queen of Sheba, they claimed, was Ethiopian, and when she returned home after visiting Jerusalem, she delivered a child, the son of King Solomon, and called him Menelik (MEH-nuh-lihk). Menelik was the legendary founder of a line of emperors who ruled Ethiopia until the 1970s.

CHURCHES CARVED INTO ROCK

Lalibela, a town north of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia, is home to 11 monolithic churches, each formed from a single large block of stone. These Christian churches are a vital part of Ethiopian history and culture, yet they are under threat. Without immediate attention, the churches—and their history—may deteriorate.

The town, which was named for King Lalibela, became the center of Ethiopian Christianity during the 12th century. After the capture of Jerusalem by Muslim forces in 1187, King Lalibela commissioned the churches and declared the town to be a new Jerusalem.

The churches were carved from volcanic rock below Earth’s surface. Trenches were carved in a rectangle isolating a single stone block. The block was then carved inside and out, creating the churches from the top down rather than from the ground up. The roofs of each of the churches are level with the ground. Long underground tunnels provide passageways from one church to another.

These churches are still in use today, and the town is visited every year by hundreds of thousands of religious pilgrims. Preservation efforts for the site started as early as the 1960s, with the World Monuments Fund (WMF) working with conservators to document information, stabilize construction, and raise international attention for the protection of the site. In 1978, UNESCO designated the churches as a World Heritage Site.

As transportation conditions to Ethiopia improved, the number of visitors to Lalibela increased. This growth in tourism along with water filtration problems has caused damage and structural problems.

In 2007, temporary shelters were built over four churches to address water problems caused by rain. However, it was later discovered that the shelters caused additional harm to the churches. In 2018, a group was commissioned to study the current state of conservation and make recommendations for further actions to ensure that the Lalibela churches—and Ethiopia’s cultural heritage—are preserved now and for the future.

Vocabulary

• Ibn Battuta - 14th century traveler who visited most of the Islamic world

• Caravan - a group of people who travel together

• Mansa Musa- Mali ruler who created a large kingdom add adopted islam

• Trans-Saharan Trade Network-

• Songhai- West African empire that conquered Mali

• Mamluk trade network-

• Sahel- a semidesert region south of the Sahara

• Savanna- an area of lush tropical grasslands

• Bantu- relating to or denoting a group of Niger–Congo languages spoken in central and southern Africa, including Swahili, Xhosa, and Zulu.

• Griots- West African storytellers, historians, and musicians who pass down oral traditions through generations. They play a vital role in preserving cultural heritage.

• Lineage- a group of descendants from a common ancestor

• Intermediaries- a person who serves as a go-between in an exchange involving two other parties

• Monopoly- sole control over something; the complete and exclusive control of an industry by one company

• Sundiata- Founder and first emperor of the kingdom of Mali

• Epic of Sundiata- a West African tale about the legendary founder of the Mali Empire, Sundiata Keita. It is an epic poem that recounts his life, battles, and rise to power in the 13th century.

• Timbuktu- a city in Mali, West Africa, known for its historical significance as a center of learning, trade, and culture during the medieval period.

• Mansa- It is particularly known as the title of the rulers of the Mali Empire, such as Mansa Musa, and in this context is sometimes translated as "emperor".

• Dhows- an early type of ship that carried trade goods across the Indian Ocean

• Swahil- a Bantu language widely used as a lingua franca in East Africa and having official status in several countries.

• Kilwa- located on a small island off the coast of present-day Tanzania.

• Menelik- Menelik was the legendary founder of a line of emperors who ruled Ethiopia until the 1970s.

• Sankore-Mosque still stands in Timbuktu.

• Ghana- Soninke clans joined together under a strong leader to form the kingdom of Ghana. (niger river)

• Mali- West African empire that grew rich from trade

• Hausa-West African people who lived in several city-states of what is now northern Nigeria

• Yoruba- West African people who formed kingdoms in what is now Benin

• Benin-Kingdom that arose near the Niger River Delta and became a major West African state

• Swahili- Language that is a blend of Arabic and Bantu

• Great Zimbabwe-City that grew into an empire built on gold and trade

• Mutapa- Southern African empire established by the leader Mutota

• age sets- Groups of similar ages who take part in the same ceremonies

• Berbers- North African Muslims

• mosques- Islamic houses of warship

• theocracy- Government controlled by a religious leader

• stateless societies- Societies without central government

• patrilineal- Tracing ancestry through the father

• matrilineal- Tracing ancestry through the mother

• Maghrib- Part of North Africa that is today the Mediterranean coast

• Almoravids-Islamic group that established an empire in North Africa and Southern Spain during the 11th century

• Almohads-Islamic group that overthrew the Almoravids in the 12th century

Everything summed up

Page 1

• Sub-Saharan African Societies

  • Africa is divided into North and East Africa and sub-Saharan Africa by the Sahara desert.

  • Migration of people in western Africa spread language and culture throughout sub-Saharan Africa.

  • Africa has varying climate zones including the Sahel, savanna, rainforest, and the Kalahari Desert.

  • Limited knowledge about early sub-Saharan Africa due to few Arab travelers before 1000, information from archaeological excavations, oral traditions, and language distribution.

  • Africans speak nearly 2,000 languages falling into main language categories like Arabic, Amharic, and Niger-Congo family.

  • Bantu languages originated in western Africa and spread east and south from around 1000 B.C.E.

  • Bantu societies were skilled in agriculture and ironworking, supporting denser populations.

Page 2

• Early African Ways of Life

  • African societies, including Bantu speakers, used oral traditions for passing historical knowledge.

  • Villages were central to African life, with residents belonging to lineages and elders making important decisions.

  • Lineages could form clans and clans could have chiefs or kings as leaders.

  • African villages were patriarchal, with men having more power and authority.

  • Women did day-to-day work but had decision-making power in some societies.

  • Great men with wealth and children often became leaders of clans or kingdoms.

• Ghana and Mali

  • The Rise of the Kingdom Ghana

    • Soninke people lived in West Africa with an ideal location for economic growth.

    • North had mines with salt, a valuable commodity, contributing to economic success.

    • Ghana and Mali kingdoms flourished in West Africa based on their strategic trade positions.

Page 3: Rise and Decline of Ghana Empire

• Formation of Ghana Kingdom

  • Soninke clans united under a strong leader to form the kingdom of Ghana.

  • Location on the Niger River facilitated trade as intermediaries in the salt-gold trade.

• Economic System and Monopoly

  • King of Ghana established a taxation system for goods passing through his lands.

  • Ghana gained a monopoly over gold trade, becoming a wealthy empire by 800.

• Religious and Social Structure

  • Capital Koumbi-Saleh had Islamic and polytheistic parts.

  • Common people mainly engaged in farming, fishing, herding, and craftmaking.

• Decline of Ghana

  • Almoravid dynasty from Morocco competed with Ghana for resources.

  • Ghana lost control of Koumbi-Saleh by 1075, leading to its decline.

Page 3: Sundiata and the Mali Empire

• Rise of Mali Empire

  • Malinke rebels, led by Sundiata, established the powerful Mali Empire.

  • Sundiata's story of overcoming disabilities and leading his people to victory.

• Expansion and Prosperity

  • Mali Empire expanded from West Africa to Timbuktu, a trade and learning center.

  • Mansas oversaw religious, political, and economic aspects, with heavy taxation on trade.

• Religious Tolerance

  • Mansas practiced Islam but did not force subjects to convert.

  • Subjects were allowed to retain their traditional religions.

Page 4: Great Zimbabwe

• Establishment and Wealth

  • Shona people settled in southeastern Africa, establishing Great Zimbabwe.

  • Location along trade routes brought wealth through taxes on goods.

• Economic Activities

  • Shona were cattle herders and farmers, utilizing iron tools efficiently.

  • Transition from wood houses to stone structures as the population grew.

• Decline and Abandonment

  • Great Zimbabwe prospered for about 250 years before being deserted after 1450.

  • Factors contributing to decline include resource depletion, population growth, and shifting trade routes.

• Architectural Marvel

  • Great Enclosure, a large circular wall, showcases the skill of builders.

  • Reserved for rulers and elites, demonstrating social hierarchy.

Page 5

• Great Zimbabwe:

  • No written records, information from oral traditions and archaeological finds

  • Discovery of hoard with Chinese ceramics, Indian beads, Persian plates

  • Skilled Shona craftworkers made fine gold jewelry

  • Evidence of participation in trade networks with East African traders

  • Fine porcelain from Ming China found at Great Zimbabwe

  • People of the region chose Zimbabwe as the name after gaining independence

• Ibn Battuta:

  • World traveler from Tangier, Morocco

  • Traveled about 75,000 miles in the Dar-al-Islam

  • Depended on donations from Muslims for his journey

  • Visited Muslim cities on the Indian Ocean coast

  • Did not venture beyond the realm of Islam due to Muslim support

Page 6

• Ibn Battuta's Journey:

  • Accompanied Muslim merchants on land and sea routes

  • Descriptions of trade items, processes, and encounters with rulers and religious leaders

  • First to record eyewitness description of sub-Saharan Africa

  • Details about Mali Empire from his account

  • Shocked by Mali's practice of Islam, approved of worship at mosques and Quran memorization

• Trans-Saharan Trade:

  • Traders trekked through Sahara for West African resources

  • Mansa Musa of Mali Empire displayed wealth in Cairo

  • Wealth gained through taxes on trade along trans-Saharan trade network

  • Trade of salt, gold, and slaves in West Africa

  • Mali's wealth attracted envy and led to conflicts with neighboring Songhai people

Page 7

• Dhows in Arab World

  • Early vessels with triangular sails

  • Carried goods between ports like camels in the desert

  • No deck, passengers sat and slept

• Mamluk Trade Networks

  • Mamluks replaced Saladin's dynasty in Egypt

  • Started as enslaved Turkish soldiers

  • Converted to Islam, gained freedom, held high positions

  • Controlled Egypt and Syria until 1517

  • Revived Islam after Mongol sack of Baghdad

  • Cairo became cultural center for Islam

  • Economic distress led to increased trade taxes

• African Trade Networks

  • North Africa as endpoint for West African goods

  • Trade items transported to Europe and Asia

  • Traders also used Red Sea to reach Indian Ocean

  • Exchange of goods like Chinese silk and Indian spices

• Eastern Networks

  • Indian Ocean trade network driven by Muslim traders

  • Sultanates taxed sea trade

  • People traveled on dhows, intermarried, mixed cultures

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• Swahili Culture

  • Bantu-speaking migrants settled on East African coast

  • Borrowed words from Arabic, Farsi, Gujarati

  • Converted to Islam, focused on trade

  • Kilwa as important trading city for gold, ivory, captives

• Kingdom of Ethiopia

  • Christian rulers with Coptic form of faith

  • Sacred script Geʼez used for religious purposes

  • St. George's Church at Lalibela carved out of rock

  • Christian kings traced ancestry to Queen of Sheba

• Churches Carved into Rock

  • Lalibela town in Ethiopia with 11 monolithic churches

  • Formed from single large block of stone

  • Vital part of Ethiopian history and culture

  • Under threat and in need of preservation efforts

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• Lalibela Churches in Ethiopia

  • Known for historical significance in learning, trade, and culture during medieval period

  • Churches built from top down, with roofs level with the ground

  • Preservation efforts by World Monuments Fund (WMF) since 1960s

  • UNESCO designated churches as World Heritage Site in 1978

  • Growth in tourism led to damage and structural problems

  • Temporary shelters built in 2007 caused additional harm

  • Commissioned group in 2018 to study conservation and make recommendations

• Vocabulary

  • Ibn Battuta: 14th-century traveler in the Islamic world

  • Caravan: Group of people traveling together

  • Mansa Musa: Mali ruler who adopted Islam and created a large kingdom

  • Trans-Saharan Trade Network: Songhai, West African empire

  • Mamluk trade network: Sahel, semidesert region south of Sahara

  • Griots: West African storytellers preserving oral traditions

  • Sundiata: Founder of Mali Empire, subject of the Epic of Sundiata

  • Mansa: Title of rulers of Mali Empire, like Mansa Musa