OB Final Flashcard Set

12/5 EXAM 2 (5,8,13,16) 

Chapter 5: Key Individual Differences and the Road to Success

Self Concept: High self esteem vs. Low self esteem

Moderate Positive Correlation of Self-Esteem Across Cultures: People with higher self-esteem tend to report higher life satisfaction, though the relationship isn't extremely strong (moderate suggests a noticeable but not overwhelming link).

Self Esteem can be improved by: Training, Recognition, Coaching and Supportive leadership

Bandura's model of self-efficacy: Suggests that an individual's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations influences their behavior, motivation, and emotional responses, with these beliefs shaped by prior experiences, social influences, and physical/emotional states.

Key Elements of Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Model

1. Self-Efficacy Beliefs: These are individuals' beliefs about their capacity to execute tasks and achieve goals. High self-efficacy means a person believes they can succeed in a specific task, while low self-efficacy means they doubt their abilities to succeed.

2. Sources of Self-Efficacy: Bandura identified four primary sources that influence the development of self-efficacy beliefs:

• Mastery Experiences: Successes in past experiences that build confidence in one's abilities. Overcoming challenges or achieving goals increases self-efficacy, while failure can decrease it.

• Vicarious Experiences: Observing others, particularly those perceived as similar to oneself, succeed or fail can influence self-efficacy. Seeing others succeed boosts belief in one's own ability, while witnessing failure may have the opposite effect.

• Social Persuasion: Encouragement or feedback from others can enhance self-efficacy. Positive reinforcement (praise or support) can boost confidence, while negative feedback can lower self-belief.

• Physiological and Emotional States: How we interpret our physical and emotional responses to a situation (anxiety or excitement) influences self-efficacy. Feeling physically strong or emotionally positive can boost confidence, while stress or fatigue may lower it.

3. Behavioral Patterns Based on Self-Efficacy

High Self-Efficacy: People with high self-efficacy believe in their ability to succeed, so they are more likely to:

• Try hard and persevere even in the face of challenges.

• Solve problems creatively and keep pushing through obstacles.

• Visualize success and take proactive steps toward achieving their goals.

Low Self-Efficacy:

• People with low self-efficacy tend to doubt their abilities and may exhibit behaviors like:

• Being passive and avoiding difficult tasks.

• Worrying, experiencing stress, or feeling depressed.

• Giving up easily or failing to make the necessary effort to succeed.

4. Feedback Loops: The model suggests that feedback (success or failure) can reinforce or undermine one's self-efficacy beliefs. Positive feedback (success) leads to higher self-efficacy, which in turn encourages more positive behaviors (effort, persistence). Negative feedback (failure), on the other hand, can lower self-efficacy and may lead to avoidance of similar tasks in the future.

Summary of the Model

• Self-efficacy is a crucial psychological factor that influences how we approach challenges and how successful we are.

• Our beliefs in our abilities come from four key sources: past experiences, observing others, persuasion from others, and our emotional/physical states.

• These beliefs shape our behavior—whether we approach tasks with confidence or avoid them due to fear of failure.

• Positive feedback (success) reinforces high self-efficacy, while negative feedback (failure) can lower it.

The Four Components of Emotional Intelligence (EI):

1. Self-Awareness: Recognizing and understanding your own emotions and their impact.

2. Self-Management: Controlling and adapting your emotions, especially in stressful situations.

3. Social Awareness (Empathy): Recognizing and understanding the emotions of others.

4. Relationship Management: Building and maintaining healthy, productive relationships with others.

Emotions can be judged in terms of their valence (pleasant vs. unpleasant) and their intensity (how strong the emotion feels).

The Big Five Personality Dimensions

1. Extraversion: Outgoing talkative, sociable, assertive.

2. Agreeableness: Trusting good-natured, cooperative, softhearted.

3. Conscientiousness: Dependable, responsible, achievement oriented, persistent. Correlated most strongly with job performance.

4. Emotional stability: Relaxed, secure, unworried.

5. Openness to experience: Intellectual, imaginative, curious, broad-minded.

Personality Models: There is no compelling evidence that culture affects personality

structure. Conscientiousness has the strongest positive correlation with job performance.

Proactive Personality: Action-oriented person who shows initiative and perseveres to change things

Internal locus of control: Attributing outcomes to one's own actions.

External locus of control: Attributing outcomes to circumstances beyond one's control. 

Emotional Intelligence: Ability to manage oneself and interact with others in mature and constructive ways.

Psychological Capital: Having success by developing one's self-efficacy, optimism, and hope

Chapter 8: Foundations of Motivation

Motivation: A function of several components, including an individual’s needs, the extent to which the work environment is positive and supportive, perceptions of being treated fairly.

The term motivation derives from the Latin word movere, meaning “to move.” Motivation represents “those psychological processes that cause the arousal, direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed. 

CONTENT THEORIES: Revolve around the notion that an employee’s needs influence motivation. Needs are physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior

1. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory: Explains how humans are motivated to fulfill their needs in a hierarchical order. Suggests that organizations can enhance motivation and commitment by addressing employees' needs at all levels. Here is a list of top to bottom. The ones at the top are the main motivators and the ones at the bottom are the motivators. 

a.) Self Actualization: Employees are fully engaged and find purpose in their work, often going above and beyond because they feel fulfilled and want to contribute to the greater good. (I love working here, what can I do for others)

b.) Importance: Employees feel valued and recognized for their achievements, contributing to a sense of accomplishment and importance within the organization. (I’m a vital part of this business, I am an achiever)

c.) Belonging: Employees have strong connections with coworkers and feel part of a community or team. However, they may leave if they feel isolated or undervalued (I might leave if I am tempted, I know I’m part of something bigger). 

d.) Security: I don’t like my manager or working, I read job ads (Employees feel safe in their job and environment, but may be dissatisfied with aspects like their manager or work culture. They may seek stability but are not highly motivated or engaged). 

e.) Survival: At the most basic level, employees are primarily motivated by the need for financial compensation and basic job security. They’re engaged only as long as their immediate needs are met, and may leave as soon as they find a better opportunity (I’m here for the money, I will leave when I can).

Physiological: Most basic needs. Entails having enough food, air, and water to survive.

Safety: Consists of the need to be safe from physical and psychological harm.

Affiliation (Love): The desire to be loved and to love. Contains the needs for affection and belonging.

Esteem: Need for reputation, prestige, and recognition from others. Also contains the need for self-confidence and strength.

Self-actualization: Desire for self-fulfillment --to become the best one is capable of becoming

2. Alderfer’s ERG Theory: Three basic needs categories- existence, relationship, and growth- these influence behavior. 

3. McClelland’s Need Theory: Identifies three primary motivators that drive human behavior in work and personal settings:

a.) Need for Affiliation:

• Desire for social relationships and belonging.

• Motivated by interaction, collaboration, and maintaining relationships.

b.) Need for Power:

• Desire to influence or control others.

• Motivated by opportunities to lead, teach, or guide others toward success.

c.) Need for Achievement:

• Desire to accomplish difficult tasks and set high personal goals.

• Motivated by challenges, success, and the desire to excel

4. Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory: suggests that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by two factors:

1. Motivators: Job characteristics associated with job satisfaction. Factors related to the job itself, such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, and advancement, which lead to satisfaction and motivation.

2. Hygiene factors: Job characteristics associated with job dissatisfaction.found job dissatisfaction to be associated primarily with factors in the work context or environment. Specifically, company policy and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relations with one’s supervisor, and working conditions.

• To improve employee engagement, organizations need to enhance motivators while ensuring hygiene factors are adequately addressed.

PROCESS THEORIES

1. Adam’s Equity Theory: Occurs when employees perceive an imbalance between their inputs (effort, skills, time) and outcomes (rewards, recognition) relative to others. This imbalance can be either negative inequity or positive inequity. It suggests that motivation is influenced by the perception of fairness in social exchanges. This theory has two key implications. 

a.) Negative Inequity: Occurs when an employee perceives that they are putting in more effort (inputs) than others but receiving fewer or less favorable outcomes (rewards).

• Example: An employee works harder than a coworker but gets the same pay or fewer rewards, leading to feelings of unfairness and dissatisfaction.

b.) Positive Inequity: Occurs when an employee perceives that they are putting in less effort (inputs) than others but receiving more favorable outcomes (rewards).

• Example: An employee does less work than a coworker but receives a higher salary or more recognition, which may lead to guilt or discomfort for the employee benefiting from the imbalance.

Inputs: What employees contribute to their work, such as their skills, effort, experience, education, and personal attributes.

Outcomes: What employees receive in return, including salary, benefits, recognition, job security, and opportunities for advancement.

• The theory suggests that employees compare their inputs and outcomes to those of others, and if they perceive an imbalance (inequity), it can affect their motivation and job satisfaction.

2. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory: States that motivation is influenced by the belief that effort will lead to performance, performance will lead to rewards, and those rewards will be valued. In other words, people are motivated to act if they expect their effort will result in desired outcomes.

• Instrumentality: This refers to the belief that good performance will lead to desired outcomes or rewards. If employees believe their efforts will result in positive results (promotions, bonuses), they are more likely to be motivated to perform well.

• Valence: This refers to the value or importance an individual places on a specific outcome. If the outcome (a reward or recognition) is highly valued by the person, they are more likely to be motivated to achieve it. Positive outcomes lead to high valence, while negative or less valued outcomes lead to low valence.

3. Goal Setting Theory: people are motivated to achieve specific, challenging goals, especially when these goals are clear, measurable, and accompanied by feedback

• Goals direct attention

• Goals regulate effort and  motivate us to act

• Goals increase persistence

Three Components of Organizational Justice: Distributive, Procedural and Interactional.

• Distributive justice is about the fairness of outcomes, procedural justice is about the fairness of the process, and interactional justice is about how people are treated during the process.

Perception of Job Importance: Employees are more motivated when they feel their job is meaningful and has a significant impact.

Autonomy: Giving employees the freedom to make decisions and control their work increases motivation and job satisfaction.

Chapter 13: Managing Conflict and Negotiating

Conflict as war: “We shot down that idea.”

Conflict as opportunity: “What are all the possibilities for solving this problem?”

Conflict as journey: “Let’s search for common ground.”

Functional Conflict: Constructive Criticism. A healthy, constructive form of conflict that benefits the organization. Focuses on problem-solving, collaboration, and finding win-win solutions.

Destructive Conflict: Negatively impacts the organization. Leads to poor communication, decreased morale, and can harm teamwork and productivity. Typically involves personal attacks or unresolved issues that disrupt work.

Personality Conflict: A type of interpersonal conflict arising from personal disagreements, dislike, or incompatible personalities, often based on individual values, behaviors, or communication styles. These conflicts are driven by personal tensions rather than work-related issues.

In-Group Thinking:

In-group thinking occurs when members of a group see themselves as unique and morally correct, while stereotyping and negatively judging members of outside groups. This mindset can lead to viewing outsiders as threats. Excessive group cohesiveness may also lead to groupthink, where the desire for harmony overrides critical thinking, fueling intergroup conflict.

5 Alternative Styles for Handling Dysfunctional Conflict:

• Integrating (Problem Solving): A conflict resolution style where both parties collaborate to identify the problem, generate solutions, and select the best option together. High concern for others.

• Smoothing: A conflict resolution style where one person downplays their own concerns to satisfy the needs of the other party.

• Dominating (Forcing): A conflict resolution style focused on "I win, you lose," where one party prioritizes their own needs over the other’s. Low concern for others, high concern for self. 

• Avoiding: A conflict resolution style where one avoids confrontation, typically used for trivial issues or when resolving the conflict would be too costly. Low concern for self. 

• Compromising

Chapter 16: Leadership

Transformational Leadership Approach: The most widely studied perspective on leadership today. It focuses on how leaders inspire and motivate employees to achieve organizational goals through various leadership behaviors. 

Managerial Grid (Blake and Mouton): Model used to assess leadership styles based on two key factors: 

• concern for people

• concern for production

Situational Theories: Propose that the effectiveness of a particular style of leader behavior depends on the situation.

Approaches to studying leadership:

1. Trait Approaches: Focus on identifying the specific traits or characteristics (intelligence, confidence etc…) that successful leaders tend to have. Focused on identifying the personal traits that differentiate leaders from followers. Trait Approaches: 

Stogdill and Mann’s Five Traits: These traits focus on personal attributes and characteristics that help leaders succeed

• Intelligence

• Dominance

• Self- confidence

• Level of energy, and 

• Task-relevant knowledge 

Kouzes and Posner’s Four Traits: These traits focus on behavioral qualities that make leaders effective, particularly in how they influence and inspire others:

1. Honesty

2. Forward-looking

3. Inspiring and 

4. Competente 

2. Behavioral Approaches: Focus on the actions and behaviors of leaders, such as how they interact with employees, make decisions, and provide guidance.

• Implicit Leadership Theory: based on the idea that people have beliefs about how leaders should behave and what they should do for their follower

Ohio State Studies: The Ohio State studies identified two key dimensions of leadership:

• Initiating Structure Behavior: This refers to how a leader organizes work, defines roles, sets goals, and ensures tasks are completed. Leaders who focus on this dimension are more task-oriented.

• Consideration Behavior: This refers to how a leader shows concern for the well-being, needs, and personal growth of their employees. Leaders who focus on this dimension are more people-oriented and emphasize building relationships.

University of Michigan Studies: The University of Michigan studies also identified two leadership styles:

• Job-Centered Leadership: Leaders who focus on tasks, productivity, and the structure of the job. This style is similar to Ohio State's initiating structure but emphasizes a more directive approach.

• Employee-Centered Leadership: Leaders who focus on employee needs, feelings, and personal development, similar to Ohio State's consideration behavior, but with a greater emphasis on employee well-being and motivation.

3. Contingency Approaches: Suggest that effective leadership depends on the situation or context, meaning there is no one-size-fits-all approach; the leader’s style should adapt based on factors like the team, task, or environment.

Contingency Approaches (Fiedler's Contingency Theory): Fiedler's theory suggests that leadership effectiveness depends on the situation, which is influenced by three key factors:

• Leader-Member Relations: The level of support, loyalty, and trust between the leader and their team.

• Task Structure: The degree of clarity and structure in the tasks the leader is overseeing.

• Position Power: The amount of formal authority and power the leader holds in their role.

Fiedler's Contingency Model: Based on the premise that a leader’s effectiveness is contingent on the extent to which a leader’s style fits or matches characteristics of the situation at hand. There are two types of managers:

1. Job Task-centered style.

2.  Employee-centered style.

House's Path-Goal Revised Theory: Suggests that the effectiveness of a leader's behavior is influenced by two key contingency factors: 

1. employee characteristics

2. environmental factors

Employees with an internal locus of control are more likely to prefer participative or achievement-oriented leadership in contrast, employees with an external locus tend to view the environment as uncontrollable, prefer the structure provided by supportive or directive

leadership.

House’s Path-Goal Theory Continued: Leader behaviors thus are expected to be acceptable when employees view them as a source of satisfaction. In addition, leader behavior is predicted to be motivational to the extent it:

(1) Reduces roadblocks that interfere with goal accomplishment.

(2) Provides the guidance and support needed by employees.

(3) Ties meaningful rewards to goal accomplishment.

Path-Goal Theory Summary:

Leadership effectiveness is influenced by employee characteristics (ex locus of control, task ability, need for achievement) and environmental factors (ex task structure, work group dynamics). Leaders adjust their behaviors to fit these factors, such as being achievement oriented, supportive, or participative. This, in turn, impacts employee motivation, satisfaction, performance, and overall work-unit performance. The goal is to clear the path for employees to succeed by providing the right leadership style based on the situation.

4. Transformational Approaches: Focus on how leaders inspire and motivate employees to exceed expectations, transform their behaviors, and achieve organizational goals by fostering a shared vision.

Bass and Aviolo’s four transformational leadership behaviors:

• inspirational motivation

• idealized influence

• Individualized consideration

• and intellectual stimulation.

The Full-Range Theory of Leadership: Suggests that leadership exists ranging from laissez-faire leadership (minimal leadership involvement) to transactional leadership (focused on exchanges and rewards) to transformational leadership (focused on inspiring and motivating change).

Full-Range Leadership Model

• Transactional Leadership: Focuses on clarifying roles and offering rewards based on performance.

• Transformational Leadership: Inspires employees to prioritize organizational goals over personal interests, leading to higher motivation, trust, and loyalty.

Transformational leaders drive significant change and results by fostering intrinsic motivation, while transactional leadership is more about performance-based rewards.

• Transforming Followers: Leaders change followers' goals, values, needs, beliefs, and aspirations by appealing to their self-concept and attitudes.

Key Behaviors:

• Inspirational Motivation: Creates a compelling vision of the future, using emotional appeals and showing optimism and enthusiasm.

• Idealized Influence: Leaders serve as role models, make personal sacrifices for the group's benefit, and maintain high ethical standards.

Impact: These behaviors inspire followers to grow and align their personal values with organizational goals.

Transformational Leadership Behaviors

• Individualized Consideration: Provides support, encouragement, empowerment, and coaching to employees.

• Intellectual Stimulation: Encourages employees to challenge the status quo and find innovative solutions to problems.

5. Emerging Approaches: Explore newer or evolving leadership models, which may include ideas like servant leadership, authentic leadership, or distributed leadership that focus on collaboration, ethical leadership, and shared responsibilities.

Emerging Leadership Approaches

Servant Leadership (Greenleaf): Focuses on serving others rather than oneself, prioritizing the well-being of followers.

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model: Highlights the importance of the leader-follower relationship, where leaders form unique, one-on-one relationships with each team member.

• In-Group Exchange: Strong relationships based on trust, respect, and mutual liking.

• Out-Group Exchange: Weaker relationships with less trust, respect, and connection.

Chapter 5: Key Individual Differences and the Road to Success

Self-Concept

• High vs. Low Self-Esteem:

  • High self-esteem correlates moderately with life satisfaction.

  • Strategies to improve self-esteem: training, recognition, coaching, supportive leadership.

Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Model

1. Self-Efficacy Beliefs: Confidence in the ability to succeed in tasks.

   • High: Persistent, proactive, creative problem-solving.

   • Low: Passive, avoid challenges, higher stress.

2. Sources:

   • Mastery Experiences: Success builds confidence; failure lowers it.

   • Vicarious Experiences: Observing others' success boosts belief.

   • Social Persuasion: Encouragement strengthens self-efficacy.

   • Emotional States: Positive emotions enhance confidence.

3. Feedback Loops: Positive feedback boosts confidence; negative feedback lowers it.

Emotional Intelligence (EI)

• Four Components:

  1. Self-Awareness

  2. Self-Management

  3. Social Awareness

  4. Relationship Management

The Big Five Personality Dimensions

1. Extraversion

2. Agreeableness

3. Conscientiousness (strongest link to job performance)

4. Emotional Stability

5. Openness to Experience

Chapter 8: Foundations of Motivation

Content Theories of Motivation

1. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy:

   • From basic survival (food, safety) to self-actualization (purpose, fulfillment).

   • Example: Addressing employees' esteem needs through recognition.

2. Alderfer’s ERG Theory:

   • Existence, Relationship, Growth needs influence behavior.

3. McClelland’s Need Theory:

   • Affiliation, Power, Achievement.

4. Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory:

   • Motivators (recognition, growth) increase satisfaction.

   • Hygiene factors (salary, policies) prevent dissatisfaction.

Process Theories

1. Adam’s Equity Theory:

   • Negative Inequity: Feeling undervalued.

   • Positive Inequity: Receiving unearned rewards.

   • Inputs (effort) vs. outcomes (rewards).

2. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory:

   • Motivation depends on belief in effort-performance-reward linkage.

3. Goal Setting Theory:

   • Clear, challenging goals enhance focus and effort.

Chapter 13: Managing Conflict and Negotiating

Conflict Types

• Functional: Constructive, leads to problem-solving.

• Destructive: Harmful, lowers morale.

• Personality Conflict: Based on interpersonal tensions.

Five Conflict Management Styles

1. Integrating: Collaborative problem-solving.

2. Smoothing: Downplaying concerns to satisfy others.

3. Dominating: Prioritizing self over others.

4. Avoiding: Skipping trivial conflicts.

5. Compromising: Finding a middle ground.

Organizational Justice

• Distributive Justice: Fairness of outcomes.

• Procedural Justice: Fairness of processes.

• Interactional Justice: Treatment during processes.

Chapter 16: Leadership

Transformational Leadership

• Key Behaviors:

  • Inspirational Motivation

  • Idealized Influence

  • Individualized Consideration

  • Intellectual Stimulation

Theories of Leadership

1. Trait Approach: Leaders exhibit intelligence, confidence, energy.

2. Behavioral Approach:

   • Initiating Structure: Task-focused.

   • Consideration: Relationship-focused.

3. Contingency Approach: Leadership style adapts to context.

   • Fiedler’s Theory: Leader-member relations, task structure, position power.

4. Emerging Models:

   • Servant Leadership: Focuses on followers’ well-being.

   • Leader-Member Exchange: Builds trust and respect with team members.

Full-Range Leadership Model

• Transactional: Reward-based.

• Transformational: Inspires intrinsic motivation.