philosophy midterm

Study Questions and Answers

SKEPTICISM

1. What is skepticism?

   • Skepticism is the philosophical position that questions the possibility of certain or absolute knowledge. It challenges whether we can truly know anything with certainty.

2. What does Descartes mean by "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am")?

   • Descartes argued that while he could doubt everything, the very act of doubting proved his existence as a thinking being. This statement serves as the foundation for his epistemological certainty.

3. What is Descartes’ theory of representative perceptions?

   • Descartes believed that we do not perceive the external world directly; instead, our mind constructs internal representations of it. These mental images may or may not correspond to reality.

4. What is solipsism of the present moment?

   • This is the extreme skeptical view that only the present moment and one's own thoughts are certain. Everything else, including the past and the external world, could be an illusion.

5. What is Berkeley’s theory of idealism?

   • Berkeley argued that reality consists only of minds and their ideas. He rejected material substance, claiming that things exist only as they are perceived ("to be is to be perceived" – esse est percipi).

6. What is Kant’s distinction between the phenomenal and noumenal worlds?

   • The phenomenal world consists of things as they appear to us, shaped by our senses and concepts. The noumenal world, by contrast, is reality as it is in itself, which Kant believed we can never directly know.

TRUTH

7. What is the difference between objective and subjective truth?

   • Objective truth is independent of individual beliefs and perceptions, whereas subjective truth is based on personal experiences and perspectives.

8. What is the correspondence theory of truth?

   • This theory states that a statement is true if it accurately corresponds to reality. For example, "The sky is blue" is true if, in fact, the sky is blue.

9. What is the pragmatist theory of truth?

   • The pragmatist theory, associated with William James, argues that truth is what works or what is useful in practice. A belief is true if it helps us function effectively.

10. What is cognitive relativism?

    • Cognitive relativism is the view that truth is relative to different conceptual frameworks or cultural perspectives, meaning there is no absolute truth.

11. What is a conceptual scheme?

    • A conceptual scheme is the mental framework through which we interpret reality. Different cultures and individuals may have different conceptual schemes.

12. What is the coherence theory of truth?

    • This theory holds that a belief is true if it logically fits within a coherent system of beliefs. Truth is based on consistency rather than direct correspondence to reality.

13. What is Nietzsche’s theory of perspectivism?

    • Nietzsche argued that there is no single, absolute truth. Instead, knowledge is shaped by different perspectives, influenced by power, language, and culture.

14. What is postmodern relativism?

    • Postmodern relativism suggests that truth is subjective and constructed by social, historical, and linguistic contexts. It often challenges the idea of universal or objective knowledge.

PERSONAL IDENTITY

15. What are the two different senses of “identity”?

    • Numerical identity: Being one and the same thing over time.

    • Qualitative identity: Sharing the same properties or characteristics.

16. What is the car identity problem?

    • The car identity problem questions whether a car remains the same if its parts are gradually replaced. It raises issues about how much change an object can undergo while still being considered the same.

17. What is the physical continuity theory of personal identity?

    • This theory states that personal identity is based on the continued existence of the same physical body over time.

18. What is the same-soul theory of personal identity?

    • The same-soul theory argues that identity persists over time because of the continued existence of an immaterial soul, regardless of physical or psychological changes.

19. What are the three versions of the psychological continuity theory?

    • Personality theory: A person remains the same if their core personality traits remain stable over time.

    • Stream of consciousness theory: Identity is maintained through an ongoing stream of experiences and thoughts.

    • Memory theory: A person is the same over time if they retain memories that link their past and present self.