Origins of the Cold War

Origins of the Cold War

• World War II concluded in 1945, leaving the U.S. and Soviet Union as the dominant global powers.
• The U.S. aimed for global economic restructuring to ensure American prosperity, promoting a world based on American values.
• The Soviet Union prioritized its security, having suffered 20 million casualties in the war against Hitler, and sought a sphere of influence in Eastern Europe.

A Divided Europe

• Post-WWII Europe was divided into spheres of influence, primarily between NATO states and Warsaw Pact states, along with other communist and non-aligned states.

Conflicts of the Cold War

• Ideological Conflict:
  • The U.S. promoted free markets and representative democracies.
  • The Soviet Union advocated for a command economy and bureaucratic rule.
• Technological Conflict:
  • Arms race
  • Space race
  • Competition regarding consumer goods.
• "Hearts and Minds" Conflict:
  • Efforts to gain alignment of the "Third World" through initiatives like the Peace Corps, Fulbright Program, and immigration reforms.

The Truman Doctrine

• Containment:
  • The U.S. committed to preventing further Soviet expansion of power and influence.
• 1947:
  • The Truman Doctrine was enacted, committing the U.S. to supporting the monarchy in Greece and preventing Soviet involvement in Turkey.
  • 400 million was pledged with bipartisan support.

The Marshall Plan

• June 1947:
  • Secretary of State George Marshall announced a plan to provide billions in aid to rebuild Western Europe.
  • Driven by concerns about economic chaos, inflation, and starvation, and the fear of a slide toward communism.
  • Aimed to shore up support for and faith in capitalism and create markets for American goods.
  • The slogan was "Prosperity Makes Your Free."

The Korean War

• 1949:
  • Communists secured control of China.
• Korea was divided after World War II.
• June 1950:
  • North Korea invaded South Korea in an effort to unify the country.
  • The UN authorized the use of force to expel North Korean forces.
• September 1950:
  • U.S. forces occupied most of North Korea, but Chinese forces intervened, driving them back.
  • The conflict resulted in a stalemate, with an armistice in 1953, returning the border to the 38th parallel.

Conflict in Korea - Impact

• 33,000 Americans were killed.
• 1 million Korean soldiers were killed.
• 2 million civilians died.
• The Cold War became a global conflict with a huge human toll.
• 1947-1953:
  • The postwar age developed into a divided world, characterized by ideological conflict and military confrontations under the shadow of "the bomb."

Origins of American War in Vietnam

• 19th Century:
  • French Indochina:
    • The region was under French colonial rule, leading to the rise of underground independence movements.
• World War II:
  • Japanese Occupation:
    • During World War II, Japan occupied French Indochina.
  • U.S. Support for Viet Minh:
    • The United States collaborated with Ho Chi Minh’s forces, known as the Viet Minh, who were fighting for independence.
• 1945-1954:
  • French Reassertion:
    • The French returned to Indochina and established a puppet government.
  • U.S. Financial Support:
    • The U.S. provided millions of dollars to support the French effort.

American Escalation

• 1954:
  • Battle of Dien Bien Phu:
    • A significant military defeat for the French, leading to their withdrawal from Indochina.
  • Geneva Conference:
    • A conference was held to address the aftermath of the French withdrawal.
    • Temporary Boundary:
      • The conference resulted in a temporary boundary being established at the 17th parallel, dividing Vietnam into North and South.
    • National Elections:
      • National elections were planned for 1956 to reunify the country.
• U.S. Intervention:
  • Installation of Ngo Dinh Diem:
    • The U.S. intervened by installing Ngo Dinh Diem as the leader of South Vietnam.
  • Diem’s Background:
    • Diem was a Catholic who had resided in New Jersey.
• Formation of NLF/Vietcong:
  • Viet Minh Transformation:
    • The Viet Minh formed the National Liberation Front (NLF), also known as the Vietcong.
  • Guerilla Warfare:
    • The Vietcong waged war against Diem’s regime in South Vietnam.
• Buddhist Rebellion:
  • Protests and Self-Immolation:
    • Buddhists rebelled against Diem’s discriminatory policies, with some engaging in acts of self-immolation to protest.
• 1963:
  • Overthrow and Assassination of Diem:
    • Diem was overthrown and killed in a coup orchestrated by the CIA.

1964-1970: Frustration and Defeat

• By 1967:
  • American Troop Levels:
    • The U.S. had approximately 500,000 troops in Vietnam.
  • Monthly Expenditure:
    • The U.S. was spending 2 billion dollars a month on the war.
  • Escalation of Bombing:
    • Increased bombing campaigns were conducted in North Vietnam.
• 1968:
  • U.S. Government Claims:
    • The U.S. government asserted that “Victory [was] in sight. ”
  • Tet Offensive:
    • A major military offensive by the Vietcong and North Vietnamese forces, which exposed the U.S. government's false claims.
  • My Lai Massacre:
    • A mass killing of unarmed Vietnamese civilians by U.S. soldiers.
  • Growing Protests at Home:
    • Growing anti-war protests occurred in the United States.
  • President Johnson's Decision:
    • President Johnson declined to seek re-election.
• Nixon’s Strategy:
  • “Secret Plan”:
    • Richard Nixon campaigned on a promise of a “secret plan” to end the war.
• 1970:
  • Kent State and Jackson State Shootings:
    • Students were shot and killed during anti-war protests at Kent State University and Jackson State University.

War Ends

• 1970-1971:
  • Paris Peace Talks:
    • The U.S. and North Vietnam engaged in peace negotiations in Paris.
• January 1973:
  • Paris Peace Accords:
    • A ceasefire agreement was reached, leading to U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam.
  • Nixon Ends Draft:
    • Nixon ended the military draft.
  • “Peace With Honor”:
    • Nixon proclaimed that the agreement achieved “Peace With Honor. ”
• 1975:
  • U.S. Withdrawal:
    • The U.S. withdrew its forces from Vietnam.
  • War of Unification:
    • North Vietnam launched a final offensive, leading to the reunification of Vietnam under communist rule.

Era of Détente

• Sparked by Defeat in Vietnam:
  • Questioning of Containment:
    • The defeat in Vietnam led to a reassessment of the containment policy.
• 1970s-1990s:
  • Era of Détente:
    • A period of reduced tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union.
• Nixon’s Diplomacy:
  • Opening Relations with China:
    • Nixon normalized relations with China.
  • First Presidential Visit to Soviet Union:
    • Nixon was the first president to visit the Soviet Union
• 1972:
  • SALT Treaty:
    • The Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty was signed, freezing the number of nuclear missiles.
  • Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty:
    • Limited the development and deployment of anti-ballistic missile systems.
• Shift in Strategy:
  • From Containment to “Peaceful Coexistence”:
    • A shift from containment to a policy of “peaceful coexistence” with the Soviet Union.
• Roles of Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev:
  • Their leadership and policies played a crucial role in ending the Cold War.

Cold War Ends

• Late 1980s:
  • Protest Movements in Eastern Europe:
    • Popular protest movements emerged in Eastern Europe, challenging communist regimes.
• 1989:
  • Fall of Berlin Wall:
    • The Berlin Wall fell, symbolizing the end of the Cold War.
  • German Reunification:
    • Germany was reunified in 1990.
• Social and Economic Crises in Soviet Union:
  • Economic Issues:
    • Shortages, corruption, and apathy plagued the Soviet Union.
  • Glasnost and Perestroika:
    • Gorbachev introduced policies of Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring) to address these issues.
• 1991 Crisis:
  • Coup Attempts on Gorbachev:
    • Hardline communists attempted a coup against Gorbachev.
  • Emergence of Boris Yeltsin:
    • Boris Yeltsin rose to prominence.
• Gorbachev Resigns:
  • December 25, 1991:
    • Gorbachev resigned as President of the Soviet Union, marking the official end of the Soviet Union.

Or Does It?

• Communist States as Rivals:
  • China and Cuba:
    • Communist states like China and Cuba continue to be rivals of the U.S.
• Conflicts in Iraq:
  • 1991 and 2003:
    • The U.S. engaged in conflicts in Iraq in 1991 and 2003.
• Conflict in Afghanistan:
  • The U.S. has been involved in ongoing conflict in Afghanistan.
• Ongoing Conflict with Russia in 21st Century:
  • Conflicts persist with Russia in the 21st century.

Why the 20th Century?

• The 20th century saw an unprecedented rise in genocides due to:
  • Centralized, coercive power of the state:
    • Bureaucracies enabled systematic organization.
    • Strong executives facilitated swift decision-making.
    • Disciplinary power ensured compliance.
    • Mobilization allowed for widespread participation.
  • Nationalism:
    • Promoted inclusion of certain groups and exclusion of others, creating divisions.
  • Modern media and propaganda:
    • Used for persuasion and manipulation of public opinion.
  • Effects of war and imperialism:
    • Created instability and exacerbated existing tensions.
  • Ideological commitment:
    • Fueled radical beliefs and justified extreme actions.

The Armenian Genocide

• Historical Context:
  • Armenians were ruled by Ottoman monarchs since the 15th century.
  • They were a minority Christian population governed by Muslim rulers.
  • The Ottoman Empire was multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, and multi-religious.
• Armenian Nationalism:
  • Developed in the 19th century.
  • Repressed by Sultans through massacres and incarceration.
• World War I:
  • In 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers.
• 1915 Genocide:
  • Campaigns against the Armenian minority began.
  • Propaganda described Armenians as internal threats who undermined war efforts.
  • Forced labor and systematic killing of the male Armenian population occurred.
  • Arrests, deportations, and death marches of women, the elderly, and the sick were carried out.

The Aftermath of the Armenian Genocide

• Considered the first modern "genocide" and cited by Raphael Lemkin.
• Paris Peace Conference:
  • Established Malta Tribunals, but all Ottomans subject to incarceration were returned to Turkey.
• Armenian Diaspora:
  • Communities formed throughout Europe and the U.S.
• Turkish Denial:
  • The Republic of Turkey refuses to acknowledge the genocide throughout the 20th century.
  • This is a contentious issue in foreign relations, with Turkey exerting leverage to dissuade recognition.
• Continued scholarship has increased awareness.
• U.S. Recognition:
  • In 2019, the U.S. Congress passed a resolution recognizing the genocide as official policy.
  • On April 24, 2021, President Biden acknowledged it as genocide.

The Killing Fields of Cambodia

• Khmer Rouge Regime:
  • The Khmer Rouge came to power in Cambodia in 1975.
  • They attempted to create an "agrarian paradise" for four years.
  • Supported by Chinese and North Vietnamese.
• Methods of Extermination:
  • Forced relocations and forced labor were imposed.
  • Mass executions were carried out, often with shovels, bamboo sticks, and poison.
  • Victims were sometimes smashed into trees.
• Casualties:
  • From 1975 to 1979, 1.5 to 3 million people died, representing about 25% of the population.
• Ideological Basis:
  • Based on Maoist ideals.
  • Targeted religious groups (particularly Muslims) and ethnic minorities.
  • Intellectuals and professionals were purged.
• End of the Regime:
  • Ended in 1979 with the Vietnamese invasion.
• Killing Fields:
  • Mass graves are still being discovered.
• Late 20th-century successful prosecution of high-level officials

Rwandan Genocide

• Colonial History:
  • Rwanda was a German colony, then Belgian after World War I.
  • Europeans favored Tutsis over the Hutu majority, considering them more Caucasian and ruling through the Tutsi monarchy.
• Ethnic Violence:
  • From 1959 to 1961, there was a first wave of ethnic violence, with reprisals against Tutsis.
• 1990s Conflict:
  • International pressure was placed on the Hutu government to share power with Tutsi refugees.
  • This angered conservative Hutus in the military, leading to the "Hutu Power" movement.
• 1994 Genocide:
  • From April to July 1994, 500,000 to 1 million Tutsis were slaughtered at the direction of the Hutu-led military.
  • This represented about 70% of the Tutsi population.

Aftermath of the Rwandan Genocide

• Widespread criticism of the U.S., Great Britain, Belgium, and the United Nations for inaction.
• France supported the Hutu government.
• Tutsi Victory:
  • In July 1994, Tutsi forces regained control of Rwanda, sparking a massive exodus of Hutus fearing reprisal.
• Regional Destabilization:
  • Refugees destabilized neighboring countries, leading to a Zaire coup in 1997.
• Health Crisis:
  • Massive infections of HIV, AIDs, and STDs occurred.
• Justice and Reconciliation:
  • The UN established an international tribunal.
  • The Rwanda government established local court systems but were undermined by enduring ethnic tensions.

Comparative Analysis of Genocides

• Commonalities:
  • All three genocides (Armenian, Cambodian, Rwandan) took place during times of war and civil strife.
  • All three drew upon long-standing racial, ethnic, or religious animosities, targeting minorities.
  • All three demonstrated the weakness of international response.
  • All three were wrapped up in politics and traumas of memory, forgetting, and history.

China in Early 20th Century

• Traditional Chinese society was characterized by:
  • Rule by aristocrats (mandarins) and a landed elite.
  • A large, impoverished peasant population.
  • Weakness and victimization by Western imperialism.
  • Christian missionaries, which sparked patriotic backlash, such as the Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901).
    • The Boxer Rebellion was suppressed by Western armies, which propped up the imperial government.
  • Young, educated nationalists began to emerge within the army.

Sun Yat Sen and Chinese Nationalism

• Sun Yat Sen (1866-1925):
  • Born into peasantry, educated in Hawaii and Hong Kong.
  • Dedicated to revolution and establishing a liberal republic.
  • Developed a secret society and attracted young army officers.
• October 1911:
  • Revolt in southern China, establishing Nanking as the revolutionary capital.
  • Sun Yat Sen was elected President.
• General Yuan Shikai seized power in the north.
  • Sun Yat Sen resigned, and Yuan Shikai agreed to support a new republic as President in 1912.
  • Warlords and the landed elite raised their own armies.

The Interwar Period

• Overall, a period of chaos and uncertainty.
• 1916:
  • Yuan Shikai died.
• Sun Yat Sen established the Nationalist Party, maintaining the loyalty of nationalists dedicated to the republic.
• 1920s:
  • Riots, chaos, and massacres occurred.
• 1921:
  • The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) formed, led by Mao Zedong.
    • Committed to Marxist principles; considered the "True party of the people."
• 1920s-1930s:
  • Nationalists, led by Chiang Kai-shek, warred with Communists.
• 1931:
  • Japanese seized Manchuria.
• 1937:
  • Full-scale invasion by the Japanese; Nationalists and Communists confronted foreign invaders.

Chinese Civil War (1937-1949)

• Three-way struggle between Nationalists, Communists, and Japanese for control of China.
• By 1945, Nationalists lost popular support due to:
  • Collaboration with the Japanese.
  • Growing hatred toward landowners.
• Communists promised land reform and redistribution.
• 1949:
  • Mao Zedong proclaimed the People’s Republic of China.
  • Chiang Kai-shek fled to Taiwan, forming a Nationalist Chinese government.
    • Received U.S. recognition and support.

Chinese Revolution: 1900-1945

• Traditional society beset by foreign imperialism, a growing middle class, and peasant poverty.
• Liberals and radicals attacked these problems, leading to war with each other.
• Nationalism driven by antagonism toward outsiders but employing outside concepts.

The New Regime

• China in 1949-53: mixed economy, large landless peasant class
• Two plans:
  • “Experts”:
    • centralized command, moderation in reforms, pragmatism, emphasis on expertise
  • “Reds”:
    • ideological purity, class struggle, idealism and enthusiasm for equality
  • “Experts” wield control initially.
• 1953-1957:
  • Use of bureaucracy.
  • Soviet-style 5-year plans.
  • Emphasis on heavy industry and small, communal farms.
• Reds wield control: 1958-1962: “Great Leap Forward”
  • Decentralized industry, huge agrarian communities.
  • The Reds’ efforts resulted in a huge failure marked by massive famine and no industrial growth.
• 1962:
  • The “experts” return to power.

The Cultural Revolution

• 1965-1974:
  • Initiated by Mao Zedong in 1965 against “experts” .
  • Campaign against capitalism, bureaucracy, and hierarchy in the Chinese state.
    • Aimed to consolidate control of Mao.
  • Employed the Red Guard against enemies of the state.
  • Sought to purge China of its traditions in culture, religion, and art.
  • War against foreign pollution of revolutionary ethic.
  • Created a Cult of Mao with the "Little Red Book".
• 1970-1974:
  • Winds down due to economic collapse.
  • Restores “experts” .

The Contemporary Era

• Since 1972, relations with the United States have evolved.
• Since 1980, China has been led by “experts” focused on pragmatic, economic policy.
• Economic policies now permit some capitalism, private ownership of land, and foreign investment.
• However, China maintains one-party rule, no democracy, repression against dissidents, and suppression of civil liberties.
• Economic reform has not been accompanied by political reform.

India: Decolonization

• British colony since the 1760s.
• Ruled by a Viceroy and Council.
• Characterized by grinding poverty.
• Late 19th Century:
  • Growth of an educated Indian middle-class.
  • Commitment to nationalism.
• 1885:
  • Indian National Congress forms.
    • Led by Hindu intellectuals and reformers.
    • Advocated for self-rule and democratic reforms.
• Muslim League:
  • Formed in 1906.
  • Aimed to advance the political causes of the Muslim minority.
  • Eventually called for a separate Muslim state.
• Challenge: How to unite an independent India given its diverse population and interests?

World War I as Catalyst

• Indians fought for the British during WWI.
• Massive casualties and injury to the Indian economy due to inflation.
• Stokes resentment because self-determination was denied after the war.
• British promised gradual self-rule in response.
• Amritsar Massacre: April 1919.
  • Peaceful protest of 10,000 Indians.
  • British army opened fire, resulting in 376 deaths and thousands wounded.
• Galvanized Indian resistance to British rule.

A Leader Emerges

• Mohandas Gandhi:
  • Born in 1869, English educated.
  • Led civil rights efforts in South Africa.
  • Emerged as a leader after the Amritsar Massacre.
• Advocated for non-violence and civil disobedience.
  • Refusal to pay taxes, vote, and obey unjust laws.
• Employed fasts to demonstrate sacrifice and suffering for a good end.
• Mass appeal due to his humble, simple, and modest nature.
• Shifted the revolution from being elite-led to a mass movement.
• Focus on religion worried Muslims.

Changes in WWII Era

• British remained intransigent on granting immediate independence.
• Constitution of 1935:
  • Established an elected legislature to "assist" the Governor.
  • However, the Governor retained great power.
• Gandhi accepted this compromise, but Jawaharlal Nehru refused it.
• Indian National Congress now demanded full independence and boycotted World War II.
• Muslim League continued to advocate for a separate Muslim state.
• 1945:
  • Labour Party gained control of the British government and decided to grant independence.
  • Britain's decision was influenced by:
    • Being weakened by the war.
    • The drain on resources to maintain the colony.
    • A lack of will to continue colonial rule.

Independence at Last!

• 1947:
  • British withdrew from India, leading to its partition.
  • India was divided into:
    • Hindu India.
    • Muslim Pakistan.
  • Population transfer: 12 million people migrated across the borders.
    • Hundreds of thousands died during the process due to violence and chaos.
    • There was no comprehensive plan in place to manage the transfer.
  • India achieved independence and democracy, but faced challenges such as:
    • Poverty.
    • Illiteracy.
    • A huge, heterogeneous population.

Decolonization In Asia: Comparing China and India

• Similarities:
  • Both had huge populations.
  • Both were poor, peasant societies.
  • Both experienced foreign control.
  • Both aimed for nationalism and modernization, influenced by foreign ideas.
• Differences:
  • India: religious and liberal leaders, religious divisions, non-violent movement, democratic result.
  • China: radical vs. liberals, war and violent revolution, communist dictatorship.

Decolonization in Africa French Algeria, 1954-1962

• Population of Algeria:
  • Poor rural Muslims
  • French-speaking urban Muslims and Catholics
  • French colons (control wealth, land, and resources)
• France weakened after World War II:
  • Determined to hold on to Algeria
• National Liberation Front (NLF) emerges in 1954:
  • Agglomeration of groups
  • Arab nationalism
  • Socialist ideas

Frantz Fanon

• Born in Martinique in 1925
• French repression early influence
• Educated in France
• Wrote of psychological trauma of colonialism
• Moved to Algeria in early 1950s; joins National Liberation Front
• Wretched of the Earth (1961):
  • Revolutionary violence by colonial people is justified
  • Dehumanized; subject to violence; necessary for psychological and political decolonization
• International advocate Algerian Independence

Algerian Independence

• 1954:
  • NLF launches revolution against French
    • First phase: urban revolt suppressed by French with mass arrests and torture
    • Second phase: rural revolt led by religious leaders; long, brutal fight
• 1962:
  • France signs Evian Accords; Algeria is independent, admitted to United Nations
• 1963:
  • Ahmed Ben Bella elected first president
    • Increasingly autocratic
    • Purges enemies
    • Amplifies socialist rhetoric
• 1965: removed in coup; one-party

Belgian Congo

• Belgium colonizes Congo river basin in late 19th century; officially a colony in 1908
• Brutal economic exploitation; terror and massacres
• Growing independence movement in 1950s driven by educated Congolese
• Frustrated by Belgium’s slow reforms
• MNC founded in 1958 by Patrice Lumumba
• Negotiates Congolese independence in 1960
• Antagonizes army, seek aid from Soviet Union
• Executed in coup in 1961

Nigeria

• A colony created by British colonial designs
• Bound together various tribes, Muslims, Christians
• Ruled through tribal federation
• 1953-1960: riots against British
• British pull out amidst chaos in 1960
• 1967: Civil War in Biafra in southeast; Ibos attempt independence

Legacies of Imperialism

• Algeria, Congo, Nigeria: violent revolutions lead to dictatorships
• Ethnic, tribal, religious differences; failure of nationalism; results in personal dictatorships
• Imperialism in Africa in 20th century a disaster for Africans
• Exploitation; wealth extracted to powers
• Little or no political reforms; “civilizing mission”
• Deformed European culture: racism and arrogance