CM culture générale

Spreading the Written Word

What is a Book?

• Described as a cultural product and a series of bound sheets of paper, usually with words written on them.

• The term "book" likely originates from the High German "Bokis" (hêtre).

• Books represent only a part of the broader history of the written word.

I. From Scrolls to Codices

A) Attitudes to the Written Word in Classical Times

• Emphasis on eloquence and rhetoric with a significant influence of orality in culture.

• Emergence of early alphabets (Hebrew, Latin, Greek, etc.), with the Latin alphabet being crucial due to its readability and logical structure.

B) Transition from Scrolls to Codices

• Classical West utilized scrolls made from papyrus, difficult to handle due to fragility.

  • Scrolls originated around 2500 BCE in ancient Egyptian civilizations, could reach lengths of 10m and were cumbersome.

• By the 1st century BC, new writing styles (minuscule) emerged in the Roman Empire, improving readability.

• Introduction of the Codex (plural: codices) in the 1st to 4th centuries CE, a significant innovation using parchment (sheep skin), folded and covered.

  • Early codices were intended for notes and drafts, later evolving into more common forms.

  • Codices revolutionized intellectual work by facilitating access, storage, and interaction with written knowledge, paving the way for literacy spread in the 15th century.

C) Innovations in the Early Middle Ages

• 313: Edict of Milan granted legal recognition to Christianity, ceasing persecution.

• The Church became the main survivor of the Roman Empire, preserving literacy largely in Latin.

• Development of regional scripts in Europe after the Empire's fall; insular script emerged, characterized by large letters, abbreviations, and added spaces between words.

• Notable works: Book of Durrow and The Book of Kells featured insular script.

• Educational reforms by Alcuin of York & Charlemagne revived Roman literacy models, resulting in the Carolingian minuscule—organized, legible writing that facilitated communication throughout Europe.

D) Making Medieval Codices

• Parchment production involved several meticulous steps, transforming animal skins into durable writing materials.

• Scribes used special tools such as quills and inks derived from natural substances.

• Manuscripts were illustrated with precious metals and bound using strong linen thread, with covers that varied based on the manuscript's intended use.

E) Reading Practices in the Early Middle Ages

• Lectio Divina involved four stages:

  • Lectio: reading and delineating text

  • Emendatio: correcting errors

  • Enarratio: interpreting and commenting

  • Judicium: evaluating meaning and arguments

• Early reading practices featured public oral readings from scrolls, transitioning to private reading with the advent of codices that introduced pagination and organization.

F) Changing Attitudes to Literacy

• Classical reading emphasized declamation, while by the Early Middle Ages, silent reading began to gain prominence.

• New techniques in text presentation greatly improved legibility, leading to enhanced grammatical analysis.

G) Interconnection between Orality and Literacy

• The transition from oral to literate culture was gradual; both forms reinforced each other rather than opposed one another.

• Oral culture remained integral, particularly in social, religious, and political contexts.

II. The Rise of a Literate Culture

A) Social and Economic Evolutions Post-12th Century

• Increased written document production for legal and administrative purposes correlated with university rises and demographic growth.

• Shift from parchment to paper for lower-stakes writing led to a surge in manuscript production, particularly notable in the 15th century, doubling from prior periods.

B) The Rise of a Literate Mentality

• Literature became more specialized and commonplace with a greater reading audience, reflecting social power and authority through book ownership.

C) Reading in Universities

• Reading evolved into a more structured academic exercise from the 11th to 14th centuries, allowing in-depth analysis and organized study.

• The relationship between reader and text altered, with emphasis shifting toward an understanding of the author's intent.

D) The Writer and the Text

• By the 14th century, distinction between author and reader lessened as personal handwriting styles and annotations became commonplace within library settings.

E) The Reader and the Text

• Rise of personal annotations in texts during the mid-13th century reflected a shift toward private reading practices, leading to new religious interpretations through individual devotion.

III. Reading the Bible in the Middle Ages

A) The Bible in Latin

• The Bible was pivotal in medieval writings; the complete Christian Bible's standardization was a late-medieval achievement.

• St. Jerome's Vulgate aimed to legitimize Latin scripture, later achieving widespread acceptance.

B) The Bible in English

• 14th-century translations made biblical texts more accessible; Wyclif led a project that ultimately faced condemnation, illustrating a volatile relationship with vernacular scripture.

• Arundel Constitutions forbade unauthorized translations, highlighting tensions surrounding religious literacy.

C) The Bible, Written Word, and Orality

• Biblical knowledge spread through visual art and oral performance, bridging the gap between reading and spoken traditions.

D) Interpretation in the Middle Ages

• Various interpretive methods emerged, including literal, moral, allegorical, and anagogical readings, promoting a multifaceted understanding of scripture.