Psychology chapter 6

Chapter Outline

• 6.1 What Is Learning?

• 6.2 Classical Conditioning

• 6.3 Operant Conditioning

• 6.4 Observational Learning (Modeling)

6.1 What Is Learning?

Learning Objectives

• Explain the differences between learned behaviors, instincts, and reflexes.

• Define learning and recognize three major forms: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.

Types of Behaviors

• Unlearned Behaviors: Innate behaviors triggered by specific stimuli. These include:

  • Reflexes: Simpler, more immediate responses that are often involuntary (e.g., knee-jerk reaction). Thye are a motor or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment.

  • Instincts: More complex behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of stimuli (e.g., migration in birds based on seasonal changes).

• Learned Behaviors: Learned behaviors come from experiences and lead to lasting changes in behavior or knowledge through interaction with the environment.

Associative Learning

This involves making connections between stimuli that occur together in the environment:

• Classical Conditioning: Involves associating two stimuli; this form of learning typically involves reflexive or involuntary reactions. Notably, Pavlov's work with dogs exemplified this.

• Operant Conditioning: Involves associating a behavior with its consequences, emphasizing conscious decision-making and the role of rewards and punishments in shaping behavior.

• Observational Learning: This form of learning includes learning by watching and imitating others, and it incorporates essential social and cognitive factors.

Overview of Learning Processes

• Classical Conditioning: Learning occurs through repeated pairing of stimuli (associating the stimuli), demonstrated in Pavlov's experiments with dogs.

• Operant Conditioning: Learning based upon reinforcement or behavior and its consequence, influencing future actions.

  • A pleasant consequence encourages behavior while a punishment deters the behavior

• Observational Learning: Learning achieved by modeling behaviors observed in others, reflecting the importance of social learning throughout human development.

6.2 Classical Conditioning

Learning Objectives

• Explain how classical conditioning occurs and its relevance in everyday situations.

• Summarize key processes including acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination.

Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

Pavlov's research with dogs revealed critical components of classical conditioning:

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A natural, unlearned stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR).

• Unconditioned response (UCR): a natural (unlearned) reaction to a given stimulus

• Neutral stimulus (NS): a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response, such as the bell or the tone - this eventually become the conditioned stimulus (CS)

  Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with the UCS during conditioning, elicits a conditioned response (CR).

• Conditioned Response (CR): The behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus

  • In Pavlov's experiment, he presented dogs with a neutral stimulus, such as the sound of a bell, shortly before providing food, which served as an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that naturally elicited an unconditioned response (UCR) of salivation. Over time, the dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell (now a conditioned stimulus, or CS) with the forthcoming food, eventually salivating in response to the bell alone. This learned response is known as a conditioned response (CR).

• Higher-Order conditioning/ Second-order conditioning: Paring a new neutral stimulus with an already conditioned stimulus

Key Concepts in Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition: The phase where an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus - the neutral stimulus begins to produce a conditioned response.

• Extinction: Occurs when the conditioned response diminishes after the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The reemergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.

• Stimulus Generalization: Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.

• Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to respond dissimilarly to different stimuli that may be similar.

Real-World Applications

• Everyday examples illustrate classical conditioning, including individuals like Moisha, who developed chemotherapy-induced nausea through classical conditioning with specific medication contexts.

• Taste Aversion: A unique form of classical conditioning where an individual develops a strong aversion to a specific taste after a negative experience, such as becoming ill after consuming a particular food. After this experience you associate the taste of that food with the feeling of sickness, leading to a lasting aversion that can influence dietary choices for years.

• Pets, such as cats, can be conditioned to associate specific sounds, like the can opener, with feeding time, showcasing the real-life applicability of these concepts

Behaviorism

• A psychological perspective emphasizing the study of observable behaviors and the importance of environmental stimuli in shaping behavior. This approach, pioneered by figures like B.F. Skinner and John Watson, focuses on how conditioning processes influence actions rather than internal mental states.

• Little Albert - A famous study that has been deemed unethical - Watson presents a child with multiple stimuli and conditions fear into little albert by exposing him to a loud sound - inherently conditioning little albert to fear things like animals as he would associate them with the loud scary sound

6.3 Operant Conditioning

Learning Objectives

• Define operant conditioning and its relevance in modifying behavior.

• Differentiate between reinforcement and punishment as means to influence behavior.

• Distinguish between different reinforcement schedules and their effects on learning.

Understanding Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning (B.F Skinner) refers to learning that occurs through the consequences of behavior. Here, behavior is influenced significantly by rewards (reinforcement) and punishments:

• Law of Effect: behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated

  • This idea influenced skinner to develop operant conditioning

• Positive Reinforcement: Introducing a rewarding stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior's occurrence (e.g., giving a child praise for good behavior).

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior (e.g., stopping a loud noise when a desired action occurs).

• Positive Punishment: Introducing an aversive stimulus in order to decrease a behavior (e.g., adding extra chores for misbehavior).

• Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease undesired behavior (e.g., taking away video game privileges).

• Shaping: rewarding successive approximations of a target behavior (e.g., reinforcing small steps toward learning a new skill, such as teaching a dog to roll over by rewarding it for lying down first).

Reinforcement

• Primary Reinforcer: These are reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities - these are not learned and typically satisfy basic biological needs, such as food, water, and shelter.

• Secondary Reinforcer: These are reinforcers that acquire their value through association with primary reinforcers, such as money, praise, or tokens that can be exchanged for goods or services.

  • Money is only reinforcing when it can be used to buy other things such as things that satisfy basic needs (food) or other secondary reinforcers.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous Reinforcement: A reward is provided every time a behavior occurs, which is effective for initial learning.

• Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: A reward is given on an unpredictable basis, enhancing persistence in behavior. This includes:

  • Fixed Interval: The number of responses between reinforcements, or the amount of time between reinforcements, which is set and unchanging (e.g., payday at a job).

  • Variable Interval: The number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements, which varies or changes (e.g., fishing, where the catches are unpredictable).

  • Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (e.g., piecework pay based on quantity).

  • Variable Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., gambling, where wins are unpredictable - which is associated with low levels of norepinephrine).

• Fixed vs Variable

  • Fixed –the number of responses between reinforcements or the amount of time between reinforcements is set and unchanging.

  • Variable –the number of responses between reinforcements or the amount of time between reinforcements varies or changes.

• Interval vs Ratio:

  • Interval–the schedule is based on the time between reinforcements.

  • Ratio –the schedule is based on the number of responses between reinforcements

Cognition and Latent learning:

• Radical behaviorism: staunch form of behaviorism developed by B. F. Skinner that suggested that even complex higher mental functions like human language are nothing more than stimulus-outcome associations

• Cognitive Map: mental picture of the layout of the environment

• Latent Learning: learning that occurs, but it may not be evident until there is a reason to demonstrate it

6.4 Observational Learning (Modeling)

Learning Objectives

• Define observational learning and its significance in behavioral development.

• Explain the modeling process and its effects on behavior.

Observational Learning Basics

Observational learning involves learning by observing others, also known as modeling. The process encompasses key steps:

• Attention: The observer must focus on the model's behavior to learn effectively.

• Retention: The observer must be able to remember the behavior that was seen.

• Reproduction: The observer must have the ability to physically imitate the observed behavior when necessary.

• Motivation: There must be an internal incentive for the observer to apply the learned behavior based on the outcomes the model experienced.

Vicarious Reinforcement: When model is reinforced for behavior, it motivates learner to imitate the behavior, as they perceive the positive outcomes associated with it.

Vicarious Punishment: Observing model being punished for their behavior it decreases motivation to copy the behavior.

Implications of Observational Learning

This form of learning can lead to both prosocial behaviors (positive outcomes) and antisocial behaviors (negative outcomes). Research indicates that children are particularly influenced by parental modeling; hence, the behavior displayed by parents can shape their child's actions and attitudes. Moreover, exposure to media violence can impact behavior, potentially leading to desensitization towards violence, emphasizing the need for mindful consumption of media by younger audiences.

Detailed Study Guide: Learning Processes in Psychology

Chapter Outline

6.1 What Is Learning?

Learning Objectives

• Explain the differences between learned behaviors, instincts, and reflexes.

• Define learning and recognize three major forms: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.

Types of Behaviors

1. Unlearned Behaviors: Innate behaviors triggered by specific stimuli, including:

   • Reflexes: Immediate, involuntary responses to specific stimuli (e.g., knee-jerk reaction).

   • Instincts: More complex behaviors triggered by broader stimuli (e.g., migration in birds).

2. Learned Behaviors: Result from experiences that lead to lasting changes in behavior or knowledge through environmental interaction.

Associative Learning

• Involves connecting stimuli occurring together in the environment:

  • Classical Conditioning: Associating two stimuli, leading to reflexive reactions (e.g., Pavlov's dogs).

  • Operant Conditioning: Associating behavior with consequences (rewards and punishments).

  • Observational Learning: Learning by observing and imitating others.

Overview of Learning Processes

• Classical Conditioning: Learning through repeated stimulus pairing (e.g., Pavlov's experiments).

• Operant Conditioning: Behavior influenced by reinforcement or punishment, affecting future actions.

• Observational Learning: Learning by modeling behaviors of others, emphasizing social learning's importance.

6.2 Classical Conditioning

Learning Objectives

• Explain how classical conditioning occurs and its relevance in everyday situations.

• Summarize key processes: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination.

Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

• Key Components:

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Natural stimulus provoking an unconditioned response.

  • Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural reaction to the UCS.

  • Neutral Stimulus (NS): Stimulus that does not elicit a response, eventually becomes the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) after pairing with UCS.

  • Conditioned Response (CR): Response elicited by the CS.

Key Concepts in Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition: Learning phase where NS and UCS are connected.

• Extinction: Diminishing CR when CS is presented without UCS.

• Spontaneous Recovery: Reemergence of CR after a rest period.

• Stimulus Generalization: Similar responses to stimuli resembling the CS.

• Stimulus Discrimination: Different response to distinct stimuli.

Real-World Applications

• Examples of classical conditioning, including chemotherapy-induced nausea and taste aversion (strong aversion to a taste following illness).

• Conditioning in pets to associate sounds with feeding time.

6.3 Operant Conditioning

Learning Objectives

• Define operant conditioning and its relevance in modifying behavior.

• Differentiate between reinforcement and punishment as behavior influences.

• Distinguish reinforcement schedules and their effects on learning.

Understanding Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning (B.F. Skinner): Learning through consequences of behavior influenced by rewards and punishments.

• Law of Effect: Behaviors with satisfying consequences are repeated, while those with unpleasant outcomes are not.

Types of Reinforcement and Punishment

• Positive Reinforcement: Introduce a rewarding stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., praise).

• Negative Reinforcement: Remove aversive stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., stopping noise).

• Positive Punishment: Introduce aversive stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., extra chores).

• Negative Punishment: Remove pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., taking away privileges).

Reinforcement Schedules

• Continuous Reinforcement: Reward every time behavior occurs for initial learning.

• Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Unpredictable rewards enhance persistence. Includes:

  • Fixed Interval

  • Variable Interval

  • Fixed Ratio

  • Variable Ratio

6.4 Observational Learning (Modeling)

Learning Objectives

• Define observational learning and its significance in behavioral development.

• Explain the modeling process and its effects on behavior.

Observational Learning Basics

• Learning by observing others, or modeling, entails:

  • Attention: Focusing on the model's behavior.

  • Retention: Remembering what was observed.

  • Reproduction: Physically imitating the observed behavior.

  • Motivation: Internal incentive to apply the learned behavior.

• Vicarious Reinforcement: Motivation to imitate behavior observed being rewarded.

• Vicarious Punishment: Decreased motivation to replicate behavior seen being punished.

Implications of Observational Learning

• Can lead to both prosocial and antisocial behaviors.

• Children are particularly influenced by parental modeling, showing how parental behavior shapes child actions and attitudes. Exposure to media violence can also have behavioral impacts.