Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology
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First signs of medical technology was a preserved mummy foot where the big toe was missing and replaced with a toe made of wood
Anatomy = structure
Physiology = function
Different structure = different function
When we were born our fingers were held together with tissue cells until apoptosis (programmed cell death) occurred and separated our fingers
New discoveries are more likely physiology because we don't know why certain things always happen in our bodies which is related to function (physiology) not anatomical structure (anatomy)
Diagnostic tools: x-ray, MRI, ultrasound, CT scan, PET scan
Levels of Organization
Atom → molecule → macromolecule →organelle → cell → tissue → organ → organ system → organism
Macromolecules: lipids, protein, nucleic acid, carbohydrates
Organelles: Nucleus, Nucleolus, Cytoplasm, Cytosol, Cytoskeleton, Ribosome, Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum, Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, Mitochondria, Lysosome, Peroxisome, Vacuoles, Vesicles, Cell Membrane, Cell Wall, Large Central Vacuole, Chloroplasts,
Cell: smallest unit of life
Levels of Organization:
Atoms are the simplest level.
Two or more atoms comprise a molecule.
Macromolecules are large, biologically important molecules inside cells.
Organelles are aggregates of macromolecules used to carry out a specific function in the cell
Cells are the basic living unit
Tissues are groups of cells functioning together
Groups of tissues form organs.
Groups of organs function together as organ systems.
Organ systems functioning together make up an organism.
Metabolism: breakdown/buildup of molecules
Characteristics of life: without 10 characteristics of life you can not be considered living
Movement (internal or gross)
Responsiveness (reaction to internal or external change)
Growth (increase in size without change in shape) shape change → function change
Reproduction (new organisms or new cells)
Respiration (use of oxygen; removal of CO2)
Digestion (breakdown of food into simpler forms)
Absorption (movement of substances through membranes and into fluids)
Circulation (movement within body fluids)
Assimilation (changing nutrients into chemically different forms)
Excretion (removal of metabolic wastes)
Characters of life rely on
Requirements of Organisms (sustainability) ability to sustain life needs all 5 requirements
Life depends on the availability of the following:
a. Water (required for metabolic reactions, for transport of substances, for temperature regulation)
b. Food (nutrients needed to supply energy and raw materials for building new living matter)
c. Oxygen (used in releasing energy from nutrients)
d. Heat (a byproduct of metabolism; its presence governs the rate at which reactions occur)
e. Pressure (force required to facilitate movement of air or fluids)
Both the quality and quantity of these factors are important
Ability to sustain life because of technology
Ex: coma- feeding tubes
Vital Signs (makes sure characteristics of life are working)
Normal vital signs change with age, sex, weight, exercise tolerance, and overall health.
Adult Vital Signs
Blood pressure: 90/60 mm/Hg to 120/80 mm/Hg top # contract/ bottom # release
Breathing: 12 - 18 breaths per minute
Pulse: 60 - 100 beats per minute high or low at rest
Temperature: 97.8 - 99.1 degrees Fahrenheit / average 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit
Higher (faster) as a child because you are still developing
Homeostasis
Maintenance of a stable internal environment
Specific conditions our cells like to work in
regulated through control systems which have receptors, a set point and effectors in common. Examples include:
Homeostatic mechanisms regulate body temperature in a manner similar to the functioning of a home heating thermostat.
Another homeostatic mechanism employs pressure-sensitive receptors to regulate blood pressure.
Each individual uses homeostatic mechanisms to keep body levels within a normal range; normal ranges can vary from one individual to the next.
Feedback mechanisms:
Stimulus (Change occurs in internal environment.) → Receptors → Control center (set point) (Change is compared to the set point.) → Effectors (muscles or glands) → Response (Change is corrected.)
Positive feedback loop:
to keep going beyond the set point
Ex: childbirth
Negative feedback loop: (body likes more because can be controlled)
to stop once it reaches set point again
Ex: sweating
Many of the body's homeostatic controls are negative feedback mechanisms.
Organization of the Human Body
Major features of the human body include its cavities, membranes, and organ systems.
Anatomical position: How it lies in the body NOT how you are seeing it
Facing forward, palms up, toes forward
Body Cavities
The body can be divided into an appendicular portion (upper and lower limbs) and an axial portion (head, neck, and trunk), which includes a dorsal and a ventral cavity.
Organs within these cavities are called viscera.
The dorsal cavity can be divided into the cranial cavity and vertebral canal.
The ventral cavity is made up of a thoracic cavity and an abdominopelvic cavity, separated by the diaphragm.
The mediastinum divides the thorax into right and left halves.
Visceral (Organ itself) Vs. Parietal (Cavity)
Parietal pleura (lungs) lines the cavities while the visceral pleura covers the lungs. A thin layer of serous fluid separates the two layers.
The heart is surrounded by pericardium (heart). The visceral pericardium covers the heart and the parietal pericardium makes up an outer sac. Serous fluid separates the two layers.
Peritoneum (abdominal pelvic region) lines the abdominopelvic cavity; a parietal peritoneum lines the wall while visceral peritoneum covers the organs.
Body Systems vs. Organ Systems | ||
function | Organ system | Organs in system |
Body covering |
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Support and Movement |
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Integration & Coordination |
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Transport |
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Absorption & Excretion |
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Reproduction |
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Anatomical Terminology
Relative Positions: Terms of relative position are used to describe the location of a part relative
to another part
superior | above | |
inferior | below | |
Anterior = ventral | front | |
Posterior = dorsal | back | |
Axial region | media | Middle (closer to midline) |
Axial region | lateral | To the sides (further from midline) |
Apendicular | proximal | Closer to |
Apendicular | distal | Farther from |
Superficial (peripheral) | Closer to surface | |
deep | Further within the body |
Body Sections | ||
sagittal section | transverse section or “cross section” | coronal section |
divides the body into right and left portions. | divides the body into superior and inferior portions. | divides the body into anterior and posterior sections. |
Cross section | Oblique | longitudinal |
Right upper quadrant (RUQ) | GL | gallbladder |
Right lower quadrant (RLQ) | A | appendix |
Left upper quadrant (LUQ) | SS | Spleen stomach |
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The Study Of | ||
1 | Gastroenterology | The stomach and intestines and their diseases |
2 | Ophthalmology | The eye and eye diseases |
3 | Pediatrics | The branch of medicine dealing with children and their diseases |
4 | Radiology | X rays and radioactive substances and their uses in the diagnosis |
5 | Epidemiology | Determining the distribution and frequency of health related conditions |
6 | Cardiology | Medical science dealing with the heart and heart diseases |
7 | Psychiatry | Dealing with the mind and its disorders |
8 | Nephrology | Structure, function, and diseases of the kidneys |
9 | Geriatrics | Medicine dealing with older individuals and their medical problems |
10 | Neurology | Nervous system and its disorders |
11 | Pharmacology | Drugs and their uses in the treatment of disease |
12 | Immunology | Body’s resistance to infectious disease |
13 | Obstetrics | Medicine dealing with pregnancy and childbirth |
14 | Pathology | Structural and functional changes that diseases cause |
15 | Oncology | Cancer |
16 | Otolaryngology | Ear, throat, and larynx, and their diseases |
17 | Orthopedics | Medicine dealing with the muscular and skeletal systems |
18 | Dermatology | Skin and its diseases |
19 | Hematology | Blood and blood diseases |
20 | Gynecology | Female reproductive system and its diseases |
21 | Endocrinology | Hormones, hormone-secreting glands and their diseases |
22 | Histology | Structure and function of tissues |