Untitled Flashcards Set

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1. Intro to Anatomy

Anatomical Directions

• Superior/Inferior: Superior means above or higher in position, while inferior means below or lower.

• Anterior/Posterior: Anterior refers to the front of the body, and posterior refers to the back of the body.

• Medial/Lateral: Medial means toward the midline of the body, and lateral means away from the midline.

• Proximal/Distal: Proximal means closer to the point of attachment or origin, and distal means farther from the point of attachment or origin.

• Superficial/Deep: Superficial means toward the surface, and deep means away from the surface.

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is the process of maintaining stable internal conditions, such as body temperature and pH.

• Negative feedback: A mechanism that reverses a change to maintain stability. For example, sweating cools you down when body temperature rises.

• Positive feedback: A mechanism that amplifies a change. An example is the contractions during childbirth that increase in intensity and frequency.

Medical Imaging

• X-ray: Best for visualizing bones due to their density.

• CT scan: Provides a 3D view of bones and organs using multiple X-rays.

• MRI: Utilizes magnetic fields and radio waves to image soft tissues like the brain and spinal cord.

• Ultrasound: Uses sound waves to create images, making it safe for imaging organs and fetuses.

• PET scan: Shows the activity of tissues and organs, useful for detecting tumors and studying metabolism.

Body Regions & Planes

• Regions: Include cephalic (head), cervical (neck), thoracic (chest), abdominal, pelvic, brachial (arm), femoral (thigh), etc.

• Planes:

  • Sagittal (left/right): Divides the body into left and right sections.

  • Frontal (front/back): Divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) sections.

  • Transverse (top/bottom): Divides the body into top (superior) and bottom (inferior) sections.

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2. Chemistry for A&P

Biomolecules (Macromolecules)

1. Carbohydrates: Sugars and starches that serve as a primary source of energy for the body.

2. Lipids: Fats and oils used for energy storage, insulation, and forming cell membranes.

3. Proteins: Made of amino acids, proteins provide structure, act as enzymes, and facilitate various biological processes.

4. Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA, which carry the genetic code and are involved in protein synthesis.

Ions

• Cations: Positively charged ions such as sodium (Na⁺), potassium (K⁺), and calcium (Ca²⁺).

• Anions: Negatively charged ions such as chloride (Cl⁻) and phosphate (PO₄³⁻).

• Ions are crucial for nerve signal transmission and muscle function.

Functional Groups

• Carboxyl group (-COOH): Found in amino acids and fatty acids.

• Amino group (-NH₂): Found in amino acids and proteins.

• Hydroxyl (-OH): Found in sugars and alcohols.

• Phosphate (-PO₄): Found in ATP, DNA, and RNA.

Chemical Bonds

• Ionic: Formed by the transfer of electrons between atoms, creating ions (e.g., Na⁺ + Cl⁻).

• Covalent: Formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms (e.g., H₂O).

• Hydrogen bonds: Weak bonds between molecules, important in DNA structure and protein folding.

Polar vs Non-Polar

• Polar: Molecules with uneven electron sharing that dissolve in water (e.g., water, sugar).

• Non-polar: Molecules with even electron sharing that do not mix with water (e.g., fats).

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3. Cell Biology

Cell Organelles

• Nucleus: Contains DNA and controls cell activities.

• Mitochondria: Produces energy (ATP) through cellular respiration.

• Ribosomes: Synthesize proteins, not bound by membranes.

• Rough ER: Endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomes, involved in protein synthesis.

• Smooth ER: Endoplasmic reticulum without ribosomes, involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification.

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, packages, and ships proteins.

• Lysosomes: Contain enzymes to digest waste and cellular debris.

• Cytoplasm: The fluid and organelles within a cell.

• Cytosol: The fluid portion of the cytoplasm.

Types of Cells

• Somatic cells: All body cells except reproductive cells.

• Gametes: Sperm and egg cells involved in sexual reproduction.

• Blood cells: Red blood cells (RBCs) carry oxygen, white blood cells (WBCs) are involved in immune response, and platelets are involved in blood clotting.

• Stem cells: Undifferentiated cells that can differentiate into specialized cell types.

Cell Cycle

• G1: Growth phase where the cell increases in size and synthesizes proteins.

• S: Synthesis phase where DNA replication occurs.

• G2: Preparation phase where the cell prepares for division.

• M phase: Mitosis phase where cell division occurs.

Protein Channels

• Simple diffusion: Movement of molecules across the cell membrane without energy or assistance (e.g., O₂, CO₂).

• Facilitated diffusion: Movement of molecules across the cell membrane with the help of a channel protein, without energy (e.g., glucose).

• Active transport: Movement of molecules against their concentration gradient, requiring energy (ATP).

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4. Tissues & Glands

4 Tissue Types

1. Epithelial: Covers surfaces, lines organs, and forms glands (e.g., skin, GI tract).

2. Connective: Supports and binds other tissues (e.g., bone, fat, blood).

3. Muscle: Responsible for movement (e.g., skeletal, cardiac, smooth).

4. Nervous: Conducts electrical signals (e.g., brain, spinal cord).

Exocrine Glands

• Use ducts to release fluids onto a surface.

• Merocrine: Secrete products via vesicles (e.g., sweat glands).

• Apocrine: Pinch off part of the cell to secrete products (e.g., milk fat).

• Holocrine: The entire cell ruptures to release products (e.g., oil/sebaceous glands).

Tissue Damage

• Inflammation occurs first, followed by repair using stem cells.

Tissue Cells

• Fibroblasts: Produce fibers and matrix in connective tissue.

• Adipocytes: Store fat in adipose tissue.

• Chondrocytes: Maintain cartilage.

• Osteocytes: Maintain bone.

• Neurons and glial cells: Found in nervous tissue, responsible for signal transmission and support.

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5. Integumentary System

Epithelium Layers (Epidermis)

1. Stratum basale: The deepest layer where new cells are formed.

2. Stratum spinosum: Provides strength and flexibility to the skin.

3. Stratum granulosum: Where keratinization begins.

4. Stratum lucidum: Only present in thick skin (e.g., palms and soles).

5. Stratum corneum: The outermost layer of dead, keratin-filled cells.

Dermis Components

• Papillary layer: Contains capillaries, nerve endings, and is responsible for fingerprints.

• Reticular layer: Contains sweat glands, oil glands, hair follicles, and deep nerves.

Rule of 9’s (Burn Assessment)

• Estimates the percentage of total body surface area (TBSA) affected by burns: Head = 9%, each arm = 9%, each leg = 18%, front = 18%, back = 18%, groin = 1%.

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6. Skeletal System

Cartilage Types

• Hyaline: Found in the nose, joints, and respiratory passages (smooth).

• Elastic: Found in the ears and epiglottis (flexible).

• Fibrocartilage: Found in intervertebral discs and knees (strongest).

Cartilage Cells

• Chondroblasts: Cells that build cartilage.

• Chondrocytes: Cells that maintain cartilage.

Bone Tissue & Cells

• Compact bone: Dense and strong outer layer of bone.

• Spongy bone: Light and porous inner layer of bone, contains red marrow.

• Osteoblasts: Cells that build bone.

• Osteoclasts: Cells that break down bone.

• Osteocytes: Cells that maintain bone.

Bone Functions

• Provide support, protect organs, facilitate movement, store minerals (calcium), and produce blood cells.

Blood

• A connective tissue composed of red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), platelets, and plasma.

Fractures

• Different types of fractures include simple, compound, comminuted, and greenstick fractures.

Bone Remodeling

• A balance between osteoblast and osteoclast activity to maintain bone density and repair damage.

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7. Skeletal System Advanced

• 206 bones: Know the major bones of the human body.

• Skeleton Regions: Axial (skull, ribs, spine) and Appendicular (limbs).

• Bone Marrow: Red marrow makes blood cells, and yellow marrow stores fat.

• Bone Markings: Processes, foramina, etc., for muscle attachment or nerve passage.

• Bone Classification: Long, short, flat, and irregular bones.

• Articulations: Where bones meet to form joints.

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8. Muscular System

Muscle Cell Anatomy

• Sarcomere: The basic contracting unit of muscle.

• Myosin (thick) and actin (thin) filaments: Proteins responsible for muscle contraction.

Skeletal Muscle Contraction

• Requires calcium and ATP.

• Controlled by motor neurons.

Neuromuscular Junction

• The site where a motor neuron meets a muscle fiber.

• Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter that triggers muscle contraction.

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10. Superficial Muscles (Know These!)

• Upper Body: Biceps brachii, triceps, deltoid, pectoralis major/minor, trapezius, latissimus dorsi, coracobrachialis.

• Abdomen: Rectus abdominis, internal/external obliques, transverse abdominis.

• Lower Body: Iliotibial tract, quadriceps, biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus, gastrocnemius, soleus, plantaris, calcaneal (Achilles) tendon.

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11–15: Nervous System

CNS vs PNS

• CNS: Brain + spinal cord.

• PNS: All nerves outside the CNS.

Brain Anatomy

• Cerebrum: Responsible for thinking and higher-level functions.

• Cerebellum: Responsible for balance and coordination.

• Brainstem: Controls basic life functions such as breathing and heart rate.

Spinal Cord Anatomy

• Gray matter inside, white matter outside.

• Carries signals to and from the brain.

Autonomic Nervous System

• Sympathetic: Fight or flight response.

• Parasympathetic: Rest and digest response.

Neurotransmitters

• Acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin: Chemical messengers in the nervous system.

Plexuses

• A network of nerves, including brachial, cervical, lumbar, and sacral plexuses.

Special Senses

• Taste: Detected by taste buds.

• Smell: Detected by olfactory receptors.

• Touch: Detected by skin receptors.

• Hearing: Processed in the inner ear.

Neurons

• Send electrical signals throughout the body.

• Parts: Dendrites, soma, axon, synaptic terminal.

Neuroglial Cells

• Astrocytes: Support neurons.

• Ependymal: Make cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

• Oligodendrocytes: Form myelin in the CNS.

• Schwann cells: Form myelin in the PNS.

G-Protein & Second Messenger

• A signal pathway that activates inside the cell after a receptor is triggered.

Potentials

• Resting potential: The inside of the cell is negative.

• Depolarization: Na⁺ rushes in, and the cell becomes positive.

• Hyperpolarization: The cell becomes more negative as Cl⁻ enters.