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Ottoman Empire In Decline

Nature of Decline:

Military Decline:

• Ottoman Empire reached limits of its expansion

• Armies had lots of defeats

• Armies didn’t advance their military tactics

• Military capacity declined

• Ottoman realm became vulnerable to its neighbors

• Less effective government

• Government lost power in the provinces to its own officials

• Semi independent governors had formed private armies to support the sultan in Istanbul

  • Wanted recognition of autonomy

• Independent rulers turned administration to their own interests,

  • Collected taxes for themselves

  • Deprived state of revenue

Territorial Losses:

• Ottoman government maintained authority in Anatolia and Iraq

• Russian forces took over poorly defended territories in the Caucasus and central Asia

• Austrian empire took western frontiers

• Nationalist uprisings forced ottoman rulers to recognize the independence of Balkan provinces (Greece and Serbia)

• Lost Egypt to Muhammad Ali

• Trade declined through the Ottoman Empire

Economic Difficulties:

• European producers became more efficient and their goods flowed into the Ottoman Empire

• People protested the foreign imports

• Ottoman exports were raw materials, but did not make enough money

• Ottoman empire depended on foreign loans

• Ottoman empire couldn’t pay interest on its own loans and had to accept foreign administration for its debt

The Capitulations:

• Agreements that exempted European visitors from Ottoman

  • European powers had jurisdiction over their own citizens

  • Avoided burden of administration for communities of foreign merchants

• Ottoman officials thought of capitulations as humiliating and intrusions

• Ottoman state lacked resources to maintain its bureaucracy

• Rise in corruption

• Increased taxation

• Exploitation of peasantry

• Decline of Agricultural production

Reform and Reorganization:

The Reforms of Mahmud II:

• Separatist ambitions of local rulers persuaded Mahmud to launch his own reform program

• Reforms viewed as restoration of traditional Ottoman military

• Proposal for new European style army brought conflict with Janissaries

• Mahmud massacred the Janissaries when they wanted to protest

• Wanted more effective army

• Ottoman soldiers learned European military style tactics and used European weapons

• Ottoman military recruits studied at military and engineering schools

• Created a system of secondary education

• Tried to transfer power to the sultan and his cabinets

  • Taxes rural landlords

  • Abolished the system of military land grants

  • Undermined Ulama (Islamic leadership)\

• Established European style ministries, made new roads and built telegraph lines and created a postal service

• Ottoman empire had shrunk but was more powerful than before

Legal and Educational Reform:

• Reform sped up during the Tanzimat (Recognition) era

• Tanzimat reformers drew from enlightenment thought and constitutional foundations of western European states

• Wanted to make the Ottoman law acceptable to Europeans (To get rid of Capitulations)(wanted to reclaim sovereignty)

• Used French Legal system to create codes of conducts

• Safeguarded the rights of their subjects

  • Guarantee of public trials

  • Rights of Privacy

  • Equality before the law

• Legal reform undermined the ulama and enhanced the authority of the Ottoman state

• Ulama previously controlled religious education

  • Educational reform undermined ulama

  • Took control of education from them

• Comprehensive educational plan from primary to university

  • Primary was even free and compulsory

Opposition to the Tanzimat:

• Tanzimat provoked opposition, including critique from:

  • Religious conservatives

    • Thought that reformers posed a threat to the Islamic foundation

  • Young Ottomans

    • Wanted individual freedom, local autonomy and political decentralization

    • Wanted establishment of a constitutional government

  • High Level Bureaucrats

    • Wanted the sultan to accept a constitution

The Young Turk Era:

Reform and Repression:

• Group of radical dissidents from the Ottoman bureaucracy seized power in a coup

• Formed a cabinet:

  • Sultan: Abdul Hamid

• Reformers convinced Sultan to accept a constitution that limited his authority and established a representative government

• The sultan then suspended the constitution and killed many

• Sultans rule created many liberal opposition groups

The Young Turks:

• Ottoman Society for Union and Progress

• Founded by exiled ottoman subjects living in Paris

• Promoted suffrage, equality, freedom of religion, free public education, secularization of the state, and the emancipation of women

• Inspired army coup that forced Abdul Hamid to restore parliament and the constitution

• Dethroned the sultan and established Mehmed V Rashid as a puppet sultan

• Wanted to maintain Turkish Hegemony

• Policies aggravated relationships between Turkish rulers and subject peoples outside of the Anatolian heartland

• Syria and Iraq resisted Ottoman rule

The Russian Empire Under Pressure:

Military Defeat and Social Reform:

The Crimean War:

• Russia expanded into Manchuria, Caucasus, and Central Asia

• Interference in the Balkan Provinces of the Ottoman empire

• Russia tried to establish a protectorate over the weakening of the Ottoman empire

• Threatened the balance of Power in Europe

• Caused Crimean war

• Revealed weakness of the Russian Empire

• Russian armies were defeated in their own territory

• Russia’s economy could not support expansion ambitions

• Wanted to restructure social order

Emancipation of the Serfs:

• Opposition of Serfdom had grown among radicals and high officials

• Many believed it had become an obstacle to economic development and a source of rural instability and peasant revolt

• Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom although it remained in practice for decades

• Terms were unfair to most peasants

• Serfs won their freedom, had their labor obligations gradually cancelled and gained opportunities to become landowners

• Peasants had to pay redemption tax for most of the lands they received

• Most peasants were in debt for the rest of their lives

• Emancipation resulted in little increase in agricultural production

Political and Legal Reform:

• Created elected district assemblies (Zemstvos)

  • To deal with local issues of health, education and welfare

• All classes elected representatives

• Zemstvos remained subordinate to tsarist autocracy

• Revised the judiciary system

  • Changed to western European models

• Legal reforms also instituted a trial by jury for criminal offences and elected justices

• Encouraged emergence of attorney’s and other legal experts.

Industrialization::

The Witte System:

• Count Sergei Witte, minister of finance.

• Wanted to remove “unfavorable conditions which hamper the economic development of the country”

• Implemented policies to stimulate economic development

• Railway construction which linked far away regions, stimulated development of other industries

• Trans-Siberian railway:

  • Caused exploitation and industrialization

• Remodeled the state bank and encourages savings

• Supported infant industries with protective tariffs

• Secured large foreign loans from western Europe to finance industrialization

Industrial Discontent:

• Witte system was crucial to industrialization of Russia

• Lots of Peasant rebellion and strikes by industrial workers

• People didn’t like the low standard of living created by Witte’s system

• Industrial growth generated an urban working class

• Horrible working conditions

• Bad wages and poorly housed

• Government limited maximum working day to 11.5 hours

• Government prohibited the formation of trade unions and outlawed strikes

• Economic exploitation and the lack of political freedom made workers want a revolution

• Foreign investors, a Russian business class and Russian entrepreneurs benefitted

Repression and Revolution:

Protest:

• Antigovernment protest and revolutionary activity increased

• Hope was created by government reforms

• Peasants were unhappy with what industrialization had created

• Intelligentsia: A class of intellectuals

  • Wanted political reform and thorough social change

  • Drew inspiration from western European socialism

  • Despised individualism, materialism, and capitalism

  • Wanted social system that kept Russian cultural traditions

• Anarchists wanted to vest all authority in local governing councils elected by universal suffrage

Repression:

• Anarchists and other radicals traveled to rural areas to enlighten peasantry

• Police arrested the idealists, Tsarist authority sentenced them to prison and sent the rest away

• Tsarist authorities were scared of the radicalism

• Censored publications

• Sent secret police to infiltrate and break up dissident organizations

• Only encourages people to engage in conspiratorial activities

• In the Baltic provinces, Poland, Ukraine, Georgia, and central Asia, people used political groups and schools as foundations for separatist movements

  • Wanted autonomy or independence from Russian Empire

• Tsarist officials repressed the use of other languages and restricted educational opportunities to only people loyal to tsarist state

Terrorism:

• Land and Freedom party

  • Promoted assassination of prominent officials to pressure the government into political reform

• The People’s Will

  • Assassinated Alexander II

  • Brought the era of reform to an end

  • Caused Tsarist autocracy to adopt an uncompromising policy of repression

• Nicholas II Became ruler

  • Oppressed people

• Tsarist government embarked on mission to expand into east Asia

• Clashed with Japanese and began the Russo-Japanese war

• Japanese destroyed the Russian navy

The Revolution of 1905:

• Russian Military defeats brought up social and political discontent

• Group of workers marched on the Stars Winter palace to Petition Nicholas for a popularly elected assembly

• Government troops killed them all (Bloody Sunday Massacre)

• Caused unrest and peasants wanted to seize property of their landlords

• Soviets: Urban workers created councils to organize strikes and negotiate with employers

  • Elected delegates from factories and workshops served as members of the soviets

• Government had to create legislative assembly

• Created Duma, Russia’s first parliamentary institution

  • Lacked power

The Chinese Empire Under Siege:

The Opium War and the Unequal Treaties:

The Opium Trade:

• British East India Company traded Opium to China in hopes of an alternative to the bullion

• They used Turkish and Persian expertise on growing Opium and grew it in India

• Exchanged for silver coins

• Silver coins were used to buy Chinese products in Guangzhou

• Opium trade grew rapidly, until China started seeing a problem

• Commissioner Lin Zexu destroyed 20,00 chests of opium which started the Opium war

The Opium War:

• British commercial agents pressed their government to attack China

• British armies were much stronger and more technologically and tactically advanced than the Chinese

• British tried to attack the Grand Canal and Chinese signed a peace treaty to stop them.

Unequal Treaties:

• Treaty of Nanjing:

  • China was Forced to accept at the end of the Opium war

  • British took Hong Kong

• British made China open their ports and trading to them

• Qing government had to grant extraterritoriality to British subjects (Were not subject to Chinese law)

• Legalized Opium trade

• Permitted establishment of Christian Missions throughout China

• Prevented Qing government from levying tariffs on imports to protect domestic industries

The Taiping Rebellion

The Taiping Program:

• Hong Xiuquan led the Taiping rebellion

• Wanted destruction of the Qing dynasty and a transformation of Chinese society

• Many native Chinese didn’t like the Manchu ruling class

• Taiping reform program Wanted:

  • The abolition of private property and creation of communal wealth to be shared (Communism)

  • End of Foot binding and concubinage

  • Free public education

  • Simplification of the written language (to improve literacy)

  • Establishment of democratic political institutions

  • Equality among Men and Women

• Overtook Nanjing and made it their capital

• Tried to attack Beijing but failed

• Attacked the Yangzi River valley

Taiping Defeat:

• Chinese gentry supported the Qing government in an effort to preserve established order

• Imperial forces of Manchu soldiers failed to defeat the Taiping’s

• Qing government created regional armies of Chinese instead of Manchu, commanded by scholar gentry

  • This was made by the Empress Dowager Cixi

• The regional armies were helped with European advisors and weapons

• They overcame the Taiping’s and Hong withdrew from public affairs

• Nanjing fell and government forces slaughtered many Taiping’s

• Caused declines in agricultural production and populations had to eat grass, leather, hemp and even humans

Reform Frustrated:

The Self-Strengthening Movement:

• Funded by Imperial grants

• Wanted to blend Chinese cultural traditions with European industrial technology while keeping Confucian values

• Wanted to reestablish a stable agrarian society

• Leaders built shipyards, constructed railroads, established weapons industries, opened steel foundries and founded academies to develop scientific expertise

• Did not bring real military or economic strength

• Encourages the empress Dowager Cixi to divert funds to build luxury

• European Curriculum would undermine Confucian values

Spheres of Influence:

• Foreign powers dismantled the Chinese system of tributary states

• France incorporated Vietnam into its colonial empire

• Britain took control of Burma

• Japan forced China to recognize independence of Korea and cede the island of Taiwan and the Liaodong Peninsula in southern Manchuria

• Changed the Chinese empire into spheres of economic influence

• Qing government granted rights for railway and mineral development to Germany in Shandong province to France, Britain and Japan and Russia.

The Hundred Days Reforms:

• Liang Qichao and Kang Youwei published a series of treatises reinterpreting Confucian thought in a way that justified radical changes in the imperial system

• Did not want to preserve an agrarian society and its cultural traditions

• Wanted to Remake China into powerful and industrial society

• Emperor Guangxu launched a program to transform China into a constitutional Monarchy, sought to:

  • Guarantee civil liberties

  • Root out corruption

  • Remodel educational system

  • Encourage foreign influence in China

  • Modernize military

  • Stimulate economic growth

• Empress Dowager Cixi ended the reform decrees and imprisoned the emperor and executed 6 leading reformers

The Boxer Rebellion:

• Empress Dowager Cixi thought people wanted her to retire

• Supported an antiforeign uprising called the Boxer rebellion

• Violent movement of militia units calling themselves the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists

• Wanted to get rid of foreign devils

• Rampaged Northern China, killing foreigners and Chinese Christians

• Besieged foreign embassies in Beijing

• Armed forces of British, French, Russian, U.S., German and Japanese troops quickly crushes the movement

• Chinese government had to pay for allowing this

• Revolutionary uprisings gained public approval after Cixi’s support of this

The Transformation of Japan:

From Tokugawa to Meiji:

Crisis and Reform:

• Declining Agriculture led to economic issues and starvation

• Peasants migrated to cities

• Prices of commodities rose, and urban poor were hungry

• Samurai and daimyo fell into debt to a growing merchant class

• Increased peasant protest and rebellion

• Tokugawa Bakufu responded with conservative reforms

• Chief advisor Mizuno Tadakuni:

  • Canceled debts of the samurai and daimyo

  • Abolished merchant guilds

  • Compelled peasants in cities to return to land and cultivate rice

• Most reforms were ineffective and provoked opposition which drove him out of office

Foreign Pressure:

• British, French and the U.S. wanted to establish relations

• U.S. wanted ports where its pacific merchant could stop for provisions

• Japan resisted all of these requests

• Only trade was small number of Dutch merchants who traded in Nagasaki

• Japan prepared for attacks

• American Commander, Commodore Matthew C. Perry threatened Japan’s capital and commanded them to sign a friendship treaty allowing Diplomatic and commercial relations

• Britain, the Netherlands and Russia won similar rights

• Agreed to a series of unequal treaties that opened Japanese ports to foreign commerce

• Deprived the government of control over tariffs

• Granted foreigners extraterritorial rights

The End of Tokugawa Rule:

• The agreements with foreign powers raised opposition of daimyo and the emperor

• Discontent for the shogun spread quickly

• People didn’t want them ruling anymore

Meiji Restoration:

• Tokugawa official forcibly retired dissident daimyo and executed samurai critics

• Short civil war occurred between dissident militia and Bakufu armies ended in defeat of the Bakufu armies

• Shogun resigned and Emperor Mutsuhito (Meiji) took power

Meiji Reforms:

Foreign Influences:

• Fukuzawa Yuki chi traveled to the U.S. and Europe and studied the government and educational systems

• Wanted equality before law in Japan

• Ito Hirobumi travelled to Europe to study constitutions and administrative systems

• Drew inspiration from German constitution in writing a new governing document for Japan

Abolition of the Social Order:

• Meiji leaders wanted to centralize political power and destroy old social order

• Daimyo gave lands to the throne for patents of nobility

• Reformers created districts and appointed new prefectural governors to prevent revival of old domain loyalties

• Daimyo were removed from power

• Government abolished the Samurai class and stipends that supported it

• Eased discontent of samurai with government bonds

• Former warriors had to seek employment

• Samurai rose in rebellion but got crushed easily

Revamping the Tax System:

• Changed taxes of peasants from grain to money

• Provided government with predictable revenues

• Peasants got severe debt and bad market fluctuations

• Assessed taxes on potential productivity of land, which only allowed extremely efficient farmers to continue with the land they had

Constitutional Government:

• Rulers believed constitution gave foreign powers their strength and unity

• Established a constitutional monarchy with a legislature of diet

• Diet: Composed of a house of nobles and an elected lower house

• Limited power to executive ranch

• Like European parliament systems

• Effective power laid with the emperor

• Provided individual rights with restrictions

• Property restrictions

• Unfair voting rights

Remodeling the Economy:

• Meiji government created modern transportation, communications and educational infrastructure

• Established telegraph, railroad and steamship systems

• Removed barriers to commerce and trade by abolishing guild restrictions and internal tariffs

• Introduced primary and secondary education to improve literacy

• Supported rapid industrialization and economic growth

• Government established pilot programs to stimulate industrial development

• Government sold its enterprises to private investors

• This put lots of power in the hands of Zaibatsu (financial cliques)

Costs of Economic Development:

• Peasants provided domestic capital, but were taxed heavily and provided most of government revenue

• Foreign exchange was enabled by poorly paid workers in the textile industry

• Series of peasant uprisings aimed at moneylenders and government offices

• Meiji army destroyed rebellions and imprisoned leaders or rebellions

• Didn’t help the suffering of the people

• State didn’t allow unions or strikes of labor movements

Foundations of Empire:

Motives of Imperialism:

Modern Imperialism:

• Domination of European powers over subject lands in the larger world

• Often arose from business activities that allowed imperial powers to profit from subject societies

• Allowed them to influence their affairs without direct political control

Modern Colonialism:

• Sending of colonists to settle new lands and political, social, economic, and cultural structures that enabled imperial powers to dominate subject lands

• Soma have Migrant majority others have colonist majority

• Introducing colonies into major global trade and business networks

• Changing/Reforming educational systems to European culture

Economic Motives of Imperialism:

• Advocates thought, imperialism was in economic interests of Europeans and individuals

• Overseas colonies could serve as a reliable source of raw materials

• In demand because of industrialization (rubber, tin and copper)

• Colonies would consume manufactured products and provide haven for migrants

Political Motives of Imperialism:

• Even if colonies were not economically beneficial, they could still be important for political and military reasons

• Some colonies were in strategic sites

• European politicians wanted to defuse social tension and inspire patriotism by focusing on imperialist ventures

• Imperialism was an alternative for civil war

Cultural Justifications of Imperialism:

• Missionaries went to African and Asian lands in search of converts to Christianity

• Missionaries often opposed imperialist ventures and defended the interest of the converts against European powers

• Spiritual campaigns justified imperialism

• Missionaries helped communication between imperialists and their subjects, which helped keep them under control

• Mission Civilisatrice: Civilizing mission

  • Used by French Imperialists as justification for expansion into Africa and Asia

Tools of Empire:

Transportation Technologies:

• Steamships and railroads were most important inventions

• British naval engineers adapted steamships to travel faster and could ignore the wind

  • Allowed British to go into Yangzi river ending the Opium war

• The construction of new canals helped the new boats

• Lowered cost of trade between imperial powers and subject land

• Railroads helped imperialists maintain hegemony and organize local economies

Military Technologies:

• European industrialists created more powerful weapons

• Smoothbore muzzle loading muskets were the most advanced

• Europeans experimented with machine weapons

• Maxim gun was invented (machine gun)

• European army was much more powerful because of it

Communication Technologies:

• Oceangoing steamships reduced the time required to deliver messages

• Invention of the telegraph wires helped exchange messages even faster

• Cables linked all parts of the British empire throughout the world

• Provided Imperial powers with advantages over their subject lands

European Imperialism:

The British Empire in India:

Company Rule:

• After death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal state entered a period of decline and local authorities asserted their independence

• The East India Company embarked on conquests throughout India to take advantage of the chaos

• Conquered autonomous Indian kingdoms and reduced Mughal rule to small area around Delhi

• Doctrine of Lapse: If an Indian ruler didn’t produce a male heir, his territories lapsed to the company upon death

• Company rule was enforced by a small British army and Indian troops called sepoys

Indian Rebellion:

• Not all Indian population cooperated with the foreign rule

• Sepoy discontent occurred when they found out riffles used pig and cow fat, where they occasionally put their mouths (Against religion)

• Sepoy regiments joined a large scale mutiny, starting an anti-British revolution in central and north India

• Indian princes joined and followers who’s territory had been annexed by the British

• Began a war of independence against British rule

• British forces won and declared peace

British Imperial Rule:

• British government abolished Mughal empire and exiled the emperor Muhammad Bahadur Shah

• Abolished East India Company in favor of direct rule of India by the British government

• Queen Victoria assigned responsibility for Indian policy to the secretary of state for India

• Extended authority to all parts of India

• Cleared forests, restructured landholdings and encouraged cultivation of crops

• Built railroads and telegraph networks, made new canals, harbors and irrigation systems

• Established English-Style schools for children of Indian elites

Imperialism in Central Asia and Southeast Asia:

The Great Game:

• Russian and British explorers visited parts of central Asia no one had ever been

• Mapped terrain and sought alliances with rulers from Afghanistan to the Aral sea

• Preparing for anticipated war of the tsarist state

• Imperial expansion brought much of central Asia to the Russian empire

• Competition among European powers led to imperialism in Southeast Asia

• Dutch extended their control to the Dutch East Indies

British Colonies in Southeast Asia:

• British Imperialists moved to establish presence in southeast Asia to increase trade

• Established colonial control of Burma

  • Source of teak, ivory, rubies and jade

• Thomas Stamford Raffles founded the port in Singapore

  • Became the busiest center of trade in the Strait of Melaka

• Singapore was a base for British conquest of Malaya

French Indochina:

• French Imperialists built southeast Asian colony of French Indochina

• Made of modern states of Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos

• Officials introduced European-Style schools

• French officials encourages conversion to Christianity

• Roman Catholic church became prominent throughout French Indochina

• All of southeast Asia had come under European imperial rule except kingdom of Siam

The Scramble for Africa:

European Explorers in Africa:

• Missionaries went to Africa (Dr. David)

• Dr. David was a Scottish minister who traveled through central and southern Africa

  • In search of mission posts

• American journalist Henry Morton Stanley went on an expedition to find Livingstone

• English explorers Richard Burton and John Speke went to east Africa to look for the source of the Nile river

• These explorers gathered information of travel routes which helped merchants

• King Leopold II of Belgium hired Henry Morton Stanley to develop commercial ventures and establish a colony called the Congo Free State in the basin of the Congo River

• Leopold made the Congo region a free-trade zone accessible to merchants and business people from all European lands

• Leopold created a personal colony filled with Rubber plantations run by forced labor

• Working conditions in the Congo Free State were horrible, taxes were high, lots of abuse

• Humanitarians protested Leopold’s colonial Regime

• Belgian government took control of the colony and changed it to Belgian Congo

• Britain established an imperial presence in Egypt

• Muhammad Ali and other rulers wanted to build their army strength, and boost their economy, they also wanted to distance themselves from Ottoman authority

• Egyptian officials imposed high taxes which provoked unrest and military rebellion

• British army occupied Egypt to protect British financial interests and ensure safety of the Suez Canal (Crucial to communication with India)

South Africa:

• Dutch East India Company had created Cape Town as a supply station for ships on route to Asia

• Former employees and settlers from Europe moved to lands away from company control to take up farming and ranching

• Boers: Farmer, Afrikaners: African

• Believed God had predestined them to claim the people and resources of Cape Town

• Competition for land occurred as the population of Migrants increased

• Caused hostility and warfare, enslavement, and smallpox epidemics

• Led to the extinction of the Khoi Khoi (Native people of the lands the settlers took)

• Encouraged further Afrikaner expansion into the interior of South Africa

• Establishment of British rule disrupted Afrikaner settlers

• British abolished slavery, and eliminated the primary source of labor for white farmers and Afrikaners

• Afrikaners started to leave their farms and migrated east in the Great Trek

• Colonial expansion led to violent conflict with indigenous peoples

• Voortrekkers: Pioneers

• Voortrekkers created several independent Republics:

  • Republic of Natal

    • Annexed by the British

  • Orange Free State

  • South African Republic

• Britain discovered large mineral deposits on Afrikanerrs land

• Entered their lands and created tension of Afrikaners with British authority

• Created the South African War (Boer War)

• Slaves served as laborers and soldiers

• Created British Concentration camps for black Africans

• The Afrikaners accepted defeat and the British government reconstituted the four former colonies, as provinces of the Union of South Africa

The Berlin Conference:

• Tensions between European powers seeking African colonies led to the Berlin West Africa Conference

• Delegates of twelve European states as well as the U.S., and the Ottoman empire (No African’s) created ground rules for the colonization of Africa

• Produced agreement for future claims on African Lands

  • Each colonial Power had to notify the others of its claims

  • Each claim had to be followed up by effective occupation of the claimed territory

  • End to slave trade

  • Extension of civilization and Christianity

  • Commerce and trade

• European Imperialists sent armies to consolidate their claims and impose colonial rule

• Europeans were more advanced technologically so they always won

• Ethiopia and Liberia were the only place that resisted European rule

Systems of Colonial Rule:

• Europeans struggled to identify the ideal system of rule

• Early approach to colonial rule:

  • Government granting companies concessions of territory

  • Wanted them to undertake economic activities (agriculture, railroad construction etc.…)

  • Concessionary companies could implement tax systems and labor recruitment

  • Brutal use of forced labor and less profit than expected caused Europe to stop using private companies and establish their own rule

• Direct rule:

  • Colonies had administrative districts, led by European officials

  • Responsible for tax collection, labor and military recruitment

  • Divided existing African boundaries to weaken indigenous groups

  • Constant shortage of European personnel

  • Slow transport, and limited communication

  • Couldn’t speak their language

• Indirect rule:

  • British colonial administrator Frederick D. Lugard wrote a book stressing the moral and financial advantages of exercising control over subjects through indigenous institutions

  • Wanted to keep tribal authority and customary law

  • Only worked where African’s had established a strong government

  • Europeans established their own tribal boundaries because they thought the others were too complex

European Imperialism in the Pacific:

Settler Colonies in the Pacific:

• British established a colony at Sydney harbor called New South Wales (Mostly criminals)

  • Herded sheep

• Discovery of gold in the area brought more migrants

• Established communities in New Zealand

• Brought diseases (Smallpox and measles) which killed lots of the indigenous populations

• Fueled conflict between European settlers and indigenous populations

• Settlers pushed native peoples from their lands

• Terra nullius: Land belonging to no one (What the British settlers thought

• Encouraged Maori leaders to sign the Treaty of Waitangi, to put New Zealand under British control

• Led to conflict between Europe and Maori, separated the population into small groups outside of their land

Imperialists in Paradise:

• Whalers, merchants and missionaries visited the Pacific islands

• Whalers went to ports where they could relax and fix their ships

• Merchants sought sandalwood and sea slugs

• Missionaries established Roman Catholic and Protestant churches throughout the Pacific ocean

• Nationalists encouraged imperialists to stake their claims in the Pacific

• Europeans wanted reliable coaling stations for their steamships and ports for their navies

• France established rule in Tahiti, the Society Islands, and the Marquesas, and took New Caledonia

• Britain established rule in Fiji

• Germany established rule in the Marshall Islands

• European diplomats agreed on a partition of Oceania and Africa during the Berlin Conference

• The kingdom of Tonga remained independent, and accepted British protection against other imperial powers

• Pacific islands offered economic benefits, including sugarcane plantations, sources of coconut, soap, candles, nickel and guano.

The Emergence of New Imperial Powers:

U.S. Imperialism in Latin America and the Pacific:

The Monroe Doctrine:

• President James Monroe warned Europe against imperialism in the western hemisphere

• Declared U.S. as a protectorate (Monroe Doctrine)

• U.S. leaders wanted to acquire territories beyond North America

• Purchased Alaska from Russia, Claimed Hawaii

The Spanish-Cuban-American War:

• War broke out as anticolonial tensions in Cuba and Puerto Rico (Spanish empire at the time)

• U.S. declared war on Spain after suspected sabotage

• Took control of Cuba and Puerto Rico, and Guam and the Philippines

• U.S. established colonial government

• Military forces occupied the places they took over to prevent rebellion

• The war started a Filipino Revolt against Spanish rule

• President William McKinley brought Philippines under American control

• Filipino Rebellion was led by Emilio Aguinaldo

The Panama Canal:

• Built to help communication and transportation between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans

• Wanted to build it in Colombian land, Colombia denied

• President Theodore Roosevelt helped rebels establish a breakaway of the state of Panama from Colombia

• U.S. had the right to intervene in domestic affairs

Imperial Japan:

Early Japanese Expansion:

• Encouraged Japanese migrants to populate the islands of Hokkaido and Kurile Islands to stop Russians from taking it

• Japan bought modern warships from Britain (Strengthened their army

• Meiji leaders took over Korea and forced them to sign an unequal treaty

• Developed contingency plans for a conflict with China

The Sino-Japanese War:

• Qing ruler sent army to restart Chinese authority in Korea but Meiji leaders wouldn’t recognize Chinese control over the land

• Meiji declared war on China

• Japanese gained control of the Yellow sea and demolished the Chinese fleet

• Pushed Qing forces out of the Korean peninsula

• Qing authorities recognized the independence of Korea and ceded Taiwan, the Pescadores Islands, and the Liaodong Peninsula.

• Japan gained unequal treaty rights over China

• The victory of Japan startled Russia and rose tensions between them

The Russo-Japanese War:

• War broke out and Japanese forces took over before Russian reinforcements could arrive

• Enhanced Japanese navy, destroyed the Russian Baltic fleet, and won international recognition of its colonial authority over Korea and the Liaodong peninsula

• Russia ceded the other half of the Sakhalin island to Japan

Legacies of Imperialism:

Empire Economy:

Economic and Social Changes:

• In India, cultivation of cotton began early, but local colonial administrators changed cultivation methods to meet the demand from Europe

• Encouraged more production and built railroads for easier transportation

• Transformed India into the world’s principal supplier of cotton

• Colonial rule could lead to introduction of new crops instead of advancing what they already had

• British colonial officials introduced tea bushes from China to Ceylon and India

• Turned both lands into almost purely for cultivating that crop

Labor Migrations:

European Migration:

• Migrants left their home in search for opportunities over sea

• Left the poor agriculture societies

• Majority went to the U.S. where they sought cheap land to cultivate

• Settled northeast which provided labor that drove U.S. industrialization

• Others became free cultivators, herders, and skilled laborers in Canada, Argentina, Australia, New Zealand and south Africa

Indentured Labor Migration:

• Migrants from Asia, Africa and the Pacific islands traveled as Indentured laborers

• Planters sought laborers to replace slaves

• Labor recruiters offered free passage, food, shelter, clothing and little compensation

• Majority of Indentured laborers came from India, but also China, Japan, Java, Africa and the Pacific islands

• Went to tropical and subtropical locations in the Americas, Caribbean, Africa and Oceania

• Began when French officials sent Indian migrants to work on sugarcane plantations in the Indian ocean

• Recruiters looked in China after the Opium war

• Many Japanese migrated after Meiji restoration

Empire and Migration:

• European migration was only possible because European and Euro-American peoples had established settler societies

• Indentured laborers were able to move because of colonial officials who recruited them

• Influenced societies by adding different ethnic backgrounds to other societies

Empire and Society:

Colonial Conflict:

• Interactions of Colonial powers with native peoples led to violent conflict

• The sepoy rebellion was the most prominent effort to resist British colonial authority in India

• There were thousands of other attempts

• Colonized lands in southeast Asia and Africa were also prone to resistance

  • Europeans introduced European-style schools in the colonized lands as a response

• Rebellions drew strength from traditional religious beliefs and priests or prophets often led resistance

• In Tanganyika, prophet organized large scale Maji Maji rebellion to get rid of German colonial authority from East Africa

• Many tensions between indentured laborers and supervisors since they were all of different cultures

Scientific Racism:

• Theorists like French nobleman Count Joseph Arthur de Gobineau took race as the most important index of human potential

• Assumed human species consisted of several distinct racial groups

• Africans: Characterized as unintelligent and lazy

• Asians: Smart but docile

• Native peoples: Dull and arrogant

• Europeans: Intelligent and superior to others

• Drew from writings of Charles Darwin who wrote The Origin of Species which argued survival of the fittest

• Herbert spencer argued that those who survived were white

Popular Racism:

• Representatives of imperial and colonial powers adopted racist views based on personal experience (superiority to subject people)

• Religion was important as well, thought that other religions were worse than Europeans

• Thoughts developed because of European domination

• All empires had racist views against others because of arrogance

Nationalism and Anticolonial Movements:

Ram Mohan Roy:

• Educated Indian elites created a sense of Indian identity

• Ram Mohan Roy argued for the construction of a society based on modern European science and the Indian tradition (Hinduism)

• Supported some British colonial policies, and wanted to improve the status of women

• Saw himself as a Hindu reformer

• Published newspapers and founded societies to help educated Hindus and advance the cause of social reform in colonial India

• After his death, reform continued and improved because of him

• Called for self-government and their leaders received advanced education

The Indian National Congress:

• Had British approval

• A forum for educated Indians to communicate their views on public affairs

• Representatives aired grievances about Indian poverty, the transfer of wealth from India to Britain, trade and Tariff Policies that harmed Indian businesses, and racism

• Allowed wealthy Indians to represent locals

• Indian nationalists wanted independence