Constitutional Law – Core Doctrines

Judicial Power

• Article III limits federal courts to “cases” or “controversies.”
• Supreme Court: original \to suits between states/ambassadors; appellate subject to Exceptions Clause.
• Adequate & independent state-law ground = no SCOTUS review.
• Standing ⇢ Injury-in-fact (concrete/particularized), causation, redressability (+ prudential limits).
• Eleventh Am.: no \$ suits v. state in federal court; exceptions → consent, Ex parte Young injunctions, individual-capacity damages, prospective relief, §5 Civil War Amendments abrogation.

Justiciability

• Ripeness = real/imminent harm; Mootness = live controversy throughout (exceptions:

• capable-of-repetition,

• voluntary cessation,

• collateral consequences,

• certified class actions.
  • Political question → textually committed elsewhere OR no judicial standards.
  • Abstention:

  • Pullman (unsettled state law),

  • Younger (pending criminal/enforcement),

  • Burford (complex state admin),

  • Colorado River (parallel state suit).

Congressional Power (Art. I)

• Commerce Clause: regulate channels, instrumentalities, and economic activities w/ substantial effect; noneconomic activity ⇢ must be substantial & not traditional state concern.
• Tax/Spend: any public purpose; taxes need only relate to revenue;
indirect→uniform , direct→apportioned; spending conditions need clear notice & no compulsion.
• War & Defense: very broad; habeas protected unless suspended.
• Necessary & Proper ≠ independent power—carries out enumerated powers.
• Civil War Am. §5 (13/14/15 Am.) → congruence & proportionality; can abrogate state immunity.

Presidential Power (Art. II)

• Domestic: veto (no line-item), pardons (federal), appointment/removal ("for-cause" limits only for indep. multi-member or inferiors).
• Youngstown framework: (1) Congress approves ⇒ max power; (2) silent ⇒ twilight; (3) contrary ⇒ lowest.
• Foreign: commander-in-chief; treaties (Senate 2/3, trump state law); exec agreements override state law.
• Immunities: absolute civil liability for official acts; no immunity for pre-office acts; qualified executive privilege; Speech-or-Debate for Congress.

Federal–State Relations

• Supremacy Clause: valid fed law > conflicting state law.
• Preemption: express; implied – field, conflict (impossibility or obstacle).
• Dormant Commerce Clause: state law invalid if discriminates or unduly burdens interstate commerce unless market-participant, traditional govt function, or Congress authorizes.
• State taxation of interstate commerce → Complete Auto: nexus, fair apportionment, nondiscrimination, relation to services.
• Privileges & Immunities (Art IV): no state discrimination v. nonresident citizens re fundamental activities (livelihood, access court) absent substantial reason.

Individual Rights Framework

• State action required (except 13th Am.).
• Levels of scrutiny:
– Strict (necessary/least restrictive + compelling): race, nat’l origin, fundamental rights, content-based speech.
– Intermediate (substantially related + important): gender, legitimacy, commercial speech.
– Rational basis (legitimate + rational): everything else.

Due Process

• Procedural: notice + opportunity + neutral decision-maker when govt deprives life/liberty/property.
• Substantive: strict scrutiny for fundamental rights (marriage, contraception, family, travel, vote, bodily integrity; NO abortion right post-Dobbs—rational basis).

Equal Protection

• Suspect: race/alienage (state) ⇒ strict.
• Quasi-suspect: gender, nonmarital kids ⇒ intermediate.
• One-person-one-vote → nearly exact equality (Congress) / <10% variance (state legis.).

Takings (5th Am.)

• Public use = rational basis; just compensation = fair market value.
• Per se takings → permanent physical occupation or total loss of econ. value.
• Regulatory taking ⇢ Penn Central factors; exactions need essential nexus + rough proportionality.

Speech & Press

• Content-based regs ⇒ strict scrutiny; content-neutral TPM in public forum ⇒ narrow-tailoring + alternate channels + important interest.
• Low-value speech: obscenity (Miller), child-porn (absolute ban), incitement (Brandenburg imminent lawless action), fighting words, defamation (public figure ⇒ actual malice), commercial (Central Hudson).
• Prior restraints presumed invalid; licensing requires narrow standards + procedural safeguards.
• Govt speech not limited by Free Speech but still by Establishment.

Religion

• Free Exercise: intentional targeting ⇒ strict; neutral law of general applicability ⇒ rational basis (unless RFRA applies to fed/state w/ strict scrutiny).
• Establishment: historical practice test; gov’t may not endorse religion; school prayer, Ten Commandments in courthouse invalid; aid ok if secular, neutral, no indoctrination; vouchers upheld.

Association

• Gov’t may not punish membership absent active + knowing + specific-intent furtherance of illegal aims.
• Political patronage: cannot fire/deny benefits solely for party (except policy-making positions).

Prohibited Legislation

• No bills of attainder, ex post facto (retro criminal laws), or state impairment of contracts (unless reasonable/necessary for important purpose).