The Bibble - Payton's APUSH Notes

%%Unit 1%%

Native Americans and Spanish:

• Developed distinct and complex societies based on their geographical context, through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure
  • Southwest settlements = Aridity of region → complex irrigation systems and maize (corn) cultivation†
  • Northwest settlements = Abundant food, Hunting, fishing, gathering -- mtns → isolation
  • Great Plains settlements = Either nomadic hunters (buffalo provide for way of life) or sedentary farmers (lived along rivers, used agriculture to trade w/ other tribes). Introduction of the horse by Spaniards → shift away from farming to nomadism w/ facilitation of buffalo hunting.
  • Midwest settlements = Hunting, fishing, gathering, agriculture = mixed
  • Northeast settlements = Mixed hunting + farming (methods exhaust soil → migratory farming techniques) -- Iroquois Confederation
  • Atlantic seaboard settlements = Sustained by rivers + ocean -- Mixed ag / hunting
• Christopher Columbus
  • Columbus wants to sail westward in search of new trade route to Asia → Motivated by -God, gold, glory → European awareness of a “New World” and an era of colonization of these new lands
  • Reasons for exploration
  • Technological improvements -- shipbuilding + mapmaking + sailing compass + gunpowder + printing press (aids in spread of knowledge)
  • God, Gold, Glory = Rise of Protestantism → desire to spread Christianity, desire to expand trade and acquire riches, allure of becoming a powerful nation by expanding imperial holdings
• Columbian Exchange
  • Transfer of plants, animals, and disease from one side of the Atlantic to the other → European population growth due to new access to cheap foods (potatoes, corn, etc) / Native population decimation due to destructive diseases like smallpox
• Encomiendas
  • Socioeconomic labor system in which land-owning officers “own” and control the activities of entire villages of natives, supposedly “protect” the natives (though most live in poverty) and in return, the land owning Europeans profit off of their labor.
• Bartolomé de Las Casas
  • Advocates for better treatment of Native Americans, especially with the forced conversion of natives
• Spanish Caste System
  • Mestizo = Spanish father, Native American mother -- used as tools by Spaniards for the invasion and occupation of New Mexico.
  • Conquistadors = Explorers and conquerors who take part in the gradual invasion of native american lands
• Pueblo Revolt (Popé’s Rebellion)
  • In New Mexico, the Spanish gave promises of prosperity, and when Natives attempted to rise up against their rule, they responded with harsh punishment and forced conversions. Resentment led to the Pueblo Revolt, in which natives drove out the Spaniards for a period of time in a harsh defeat. The effect of this was that horses were now available to natives without the Spaniards to subjugate them, and the horse trade facilitated hunting, but also led to fighting between tribes.
• The Black Legend
  • Britain’s exaggeration/demonization of Spain in their treatment of natives -- while Spaniards certainly treated Natives poorly, most of the Native population decline was due to disease NOT Spanish cruelty. Britain perpetuated this false idea so as to further their imperial intentions. Used to justify Britain’s terrible treatment of Native Americans (“we are saving them from the spanish”)

English Colonies

• Chesapeake/Virginia Joint Stock Company
  • Trading company that est. first permanent colony at Jamestown. Many of these first settlers were expecting to find gold, and were unaccustomed to the work. During the early years, there was much starvation, disease, and death, and Jamestown’s survival was mostly due to the harsh yet effective leadership of John Smith (who also helped to est. trade relationships with natives)
• “Starving Time”
  • The Chesapeake/Virginia Company decided that Jamestown would only profit sale of land, thus new settlers came to the colony. The increase in population caused chaos and Smith lost control, leading to the anarchist Starving Time, in which many colonists died of disease or starvation.
• John Rolfe/Tobacco = John Rolfe acquires the tobacco seed and a lucrative tobacco trade creates source of money, allowing the colonists to bring slaves and servants to the colonies in order to support the new profitable industry.
• Indentured Servants / Headright System
  • The headright system gives land to any settler who buys stock in Chesapeake/Virginia company, plus extra for bringing servants → rise in indentured servitude in the colonies.
• Bacon’s Rebellion
  • The headright system → influx of settlers in the colony → increase in land price → wealthy get best land → poor are pushed westward onto inferior lands → conflicts with Native Americans. Governor William Berkeley is unsupportive of poor colonists in their conflicts w/ Natives → @@Bacon’s Rebellion@@ against wealthy planter aristocracy → burning down of Jamestown
  • Represents struggle of poor small farmers against wealthy planter aristocracy and colonial resistance to royal control -- foundation of Jeffersonian ideals
• Virginia House of Burgesses
  • Representative assembly to protect colonists “rights of Englishmen” → Virginia becomes a royal colony
• Maryland Act of Toleration
  • Maryland was first proprietary colony (controlled by an individual) est. by Lord Baltimore as a safe haven for English Catholics. Problems due to Protestant majority in Catholic colony → Maryland Act of Toleration, extending toleration to all Christians regardless of their sects. Angers Puritans b/c allows for tolerance of Catholics.
  • Caused by religious pluralism / diversity (Catholics and Protestants)
• New England Colonies
  • Plymouth/William Bradford = Separatist (want to separate from Anglican church) Pilgrims flee religious persecution in Anglican England aboard the Mayflower led by William Bradford to est. safe haven in Plymouth
  • Mayflower Compact = Agree to obey laws created by elected leaders. Signers of the compact est. General Court -- civil gov't grows out of the church gov’t. Based power in participatory town meetings.
  • Massachusetts Bay Colony/John Winthrop = Winthrop wants to est. Puritan (want to purify Anglican church) haven. Essentially becomes a despot w/ no tolerance of other religions, no heart for dissenters.
  • “City Upon a Hill” = Idea that Puritan colony is godly example for others to emulate (American exceptionalism / cultural superiority)
  • Roger Williams/Providence (Rhode Island) = Williams believes that there’s no use in churches if you’re predestined for heaven/hell and can do nothing to change that → Believes in individual covenant w/ God + Separation of church and state … Questions gov't imposition of religious conformity. Ordered to leave → est. Providence w/ religious freedom
  • Anne Hutchinson = Theocratic extremist who questioned ministerial authority + advocated for the eradication of “grace by good works” bc it conflicts w/ Puritan doctrine of predestination. Banished to Portsmouth.
  • King Philip's War = Puritans try to convert Native Americans by est. praying towns. A “praying Indian” was murdered → Puritans hanged 3 Wampanoag tribe members, leading to violence and King Philip's / Metacom's War.
  • During English Civil War, 4 NE colonies create the New England Confederacy for joint defense against other colonies and natives.
  • Salem Witch Trials = MA becomes royal charter meaning voting is decided on property ownership not church membership + Halfway Covenant allows baptism of those who had not experienced “conversions” internal tensions → fratricidal prosecutions of accused witches in the Salem Witch Trials.
• The Middle Colonies (including their economy)
  • New Netherlands/Dutch = Henry Hudson of Dutch East India Company explores America and est. lucrative fur trade relations w/ Iroquois Confederacy. Conflict as Iroquois move westward in search of beavers, encroaching on other tribes hunting grounds → Beaver Wars. Dutch are more concerned w/ freedom and profits than religion.
  • Pennsylvania/William Penn = Proprietary colony owned by Quaker William Penn. Quaker “holy experiment” = religious refuge w/ representative gov’t and charter of Liberties. Nonviolence and friendly relationships w/ Natives.
• Georgia/James Oglethorpe
  • Georgia est. as proprietary colony : Military buffer to protect profitable Carolinas from Spanish attack + as an attempt to empty debtor prisons in England by nthropically offering a new start. James Oglethorpe oversees Georgia w/ successful military mission and unsuccessful nthropic mission.
• Stono Rebellion and Black Codes
  • Stono Rebellion is most serious slave uprising during colonial period, was severely crushed. Black codes were est. due to paranoia in NYC of a slave uprising. Black codes prevented blacks from assembling in public places, thereby preventing them from communicating and organizing any type of rebellion.
• The Great Awakening
  • Catalyzed by George Whitefield who encourages experience of a “new birth” or sudden conversion/salvation through evangelizing speeches. Rise of Enlightenment rationalism and idea of Deism (God created universe then steps back and allows natural laws to govern) → Great Awakening
  • “Sinners in the hands of an Angry God” = Jonathan Edwards was powerful orator who did “Sinner in the hands of an Angry God” speech, spreading the idea that penitence will lead to salvation and ignorance will lead to damnation, created fear of going to hell -- Women typically experience holy spirit more powerfully → Public expressions of female piety

%%Unit 2%%

The French and Indian War

• Navigation Acts and Mercantilism
  • Required shipping/trade to be conducted on British ships w/ mostly British crew, European trade w/ colonies to go through Britain, enumerated products (e.g. tobacco) can be traded w/ Britain only.
  • Mercantilism is the idea that the colony exists to enrich the mother country, thus the mother country must protect the trade of the colony in order to generate wealth.
  • Boston stages Glorious Revolution (not the Dutch one) in response to Dominion of New England and tyrannical taxation power given to Governor E. Andros. Other colonies soon left the Dominion and it disbanded.
• Salutary Neglect
  • Shift from strict enforcement of Navigation Acts to policy of leaving colonies alone → greater political independence → colonists become accustomed to liberty → when salutary neglect ends, it feels more tyrannical because of the contrast.
• New France
  • Initially a corporate colony → shifts to royal colony, yet mostly Jesuit missionaries (good relations w/ natives b/c less forceful and borrow practices from one another -- harmonious living) and fur traders. Poor relations w/ Iroquois b/c competing for fur trade, however serve as mediators of Great Lakes tribal conflict.
• French and Indian War (7 Years War)
  • Virginians look to expand trade with natives in Ohio River Valley → French build defensive fort → GW accidentally attacks peaceful French detachment → War w/ French. Britain est. an “America First” policy to give new advantage by having American’s be invested in the war but also creates a sense of ntl's/nt’l identity.
• Albany Congress/Plan of Union
  • Intercolonial gov’t w/ tax collection + troop recruitment to provide for common defense. Colonies thought it gave Britain too much power and Britain thought it gave colonies too much power → Plan is rejected but sets precedent for future intercolonial cooperation and Articles of Confederation
• The Iroquois League
  • Makes decisions for tribes, mediates conflicts. Since Iroquois don’t like French (due to competition for beaver/fur), they aid Britain in war.
• Treaty of Paris (1763)
  • Britain gets Spanish Florida + French land East of Mississippi River
  • This leaves France with no land in America, and leads to colonists wanting to settle new land that was acquired by Britain
  • This leads to tension between colonists and Britain, as they are restricted from settling what in their eyes is “open” land.
• Pontiac’s Rebellion/Proclamation of 1763
  • Natives frustrated by Treaty of Paris b/c France gave Britain land that France had no right to in the first place. Rebellion of natives → Pontiac’s Rebellion → Passage of the Proclamation of 1763 which prohibits expansion past an invisible line drawn at the Appalachians so as to end native rebellion → Upsets colonists b/c they had fought in war for purpose of expanding westward and were now being denied that.

The American Revolution

• Virtual vs. Actual Representation
  • Grenville ends salutary neglect, seeks to lessen English debt and lighten taxes by sharing costs w/ colonies → Frustration among colonists who want actual representation in the form of elected representatives instead of virtual representation by the officials which people in Britain were electing.
• Stamp Act
  • Put tax stamps on documents and printed matter. Provokes the beginning of revolutionary thought in America as colonists asked themselves why there were remaining redcoats in the colonies--seems like Britain isn’t protecting them but rather controlling them. The Stamp Act impacts those who have the power to influence public opinion (newspapers, etc), giving them reason to express revolutionary ideas.
  • Sons of Liberty = Est. after Stamp Act to protest it, often through a more violent approach such as burning stamps, harassing tax collectors, attacking Loyalist aristocrats.
  • Stamp Act Congress/non-importation = Declaration of Rights and Grievances explains that parliament has a right to regulate trade but not to tax. Peaceful protest through non importation agreements, boycotts of British goods in order to wield economic bargaining power.
  • Declaratory Act = Colonists succeed in forcing Britain to repeal the Stamp Act, however they sneakily pass Declaratory Act as a save face and to send a message to colonists that they are still in control. The Act gives Parliament the power to make laws that bind the colonists. At this point, revolution was not viewed as inevitable, and repeal of the Stamp Act represented the flexibility of Britain.
• Townshend Act/Tea Act
  • Townshend Act est. vice admiralty courlead, tea, paper). Colonists oppose w/ Dickinson’s letter, boycotts, protests etc. → Parliament repeals all of the taxes, except for the tax on tea as a show of power → Colonists avoid tea tax by buying smuggled Dutch tea → Tea Act makes British tea cheaper than smuggled Dutch Tea to force colonial acquiescence and save British East India Tea from bankruptcy
• Boston Massacre
  • Colonists frustrated by remaining redcoats in the colonies -- question the motives → violent clash → creates revolutionary martyrs.
• Boston Tea Party
  • Response to tea tax, Men rebel against royal authority and imperial regulations by throwing tea overboard+
• Coercive Acts (aka Intolerable Acts)
  • Response to Boston Tea Party : Closes the port of Boston, royal officers were to be tried in England instead of in the colonies, provides for quartering of troops in private homes, reduces power of MA legislature.
• Continental Congress
  • 1st Continental Congress endorses Suffolk Resolves -- calls for repeal of Coercive Acts, MA arm for defense, boycotts. 2nd Continental Congress split -- independence or new relations? Continental Congresses take initiative → influence. Represents shifting mindset toward revolution as the only way to resolve the issue.
• Lexington and Concord
  • British secret mission to seize militia supply at Concord. At Lexington, face off w/
  • minutemen. Surprise British on return to Boston inflicts heavy casualties
• Battle of Bunker Hill
  • Militiamen fortify high ground, inflicting heavy British casualties → more caution by British generals AND Continental Congress instructs all able bodied men to enlist → no more middle ground.
• Olive Branch Petition
  • Last attempt to resolve conflict peaceably → pledge of loyalty and attempt to secure colonial rights -- King refuses to even open it
• Thomas Paine’s Common Sense
  • Exposes illogicality of small island ruling huge continent, proposes “radical” idea of independent and democratic Republic → John Locke’s contract theory and right to rebel (precedent for Declaration of Independence)
• Declaration of Independence
  • Restatement of Locke’s theory to justify rebellion
• Locke’s Contract Theory of Government
  • Gov’t est. to protect inalienable rights and if these rights are infringed upon, then the people have a right to rebel.
• Battle of Saratoga and Yorktown
  • @ Battle of Saratoga opens door for alliance w/ French, which is beneficial esp. w/ trade relationships and ammunition supplies. @ Battle of Yorktown, Britain surrenders, boosting Am. morale, French enthusiasm.
• Treaty of Paris (1783)
  • Britain recognizes US independence, Mississippi River boundary, fishing rights; property return to loyalists.
  • Ends Revolutionary War
• Political/Social Effects of Revolution
  • Government = State constitutions are basis for gov’t after experience w/ tyrannical British power, colonists don’t want a strong central power. State constitutions provide ideas 4 US Constitution--elected governors & Senate, separation of powers, Bill of Rights
  • Slavery = Institution + trade still alive esp. in South -- manumission (freedom granted by owner) / running away are only avenues for freedom. In the North, some states begin to include emancipation clauses in state constitutions.
  • Women = Does not change female subordination, but women begin to recognize that they deserve a place too. Lady Adams tells husband to “Remember the ladies” in the formation of new gov’t. Republican Motherhood emphasizes value of women in the domestic sphere as educators of a next generation of leaders → education for women so they can pass on Republican ideals.
  • American Indians = Americans back out on promises to natives, expand westward
  • Religion = Elimination of tax support for church, freedom of religion in some state constitutions. Pluralist and voluntary.
• Effects of American Revolution overseas
  • Inspires Revolution in Haiti and France

The Articles of Confederation

• Articles of Confederation
  • Gives Western lands to US as public domain, frustrates Americans b/c they fought to destroy a tyrannical British gov’t which restricted their westward expansion. No universal standard for currency -- creditors support hard money, debtors support paper money (inflation makes paying debts easier). Also currency shortage makes trade difficult

• Land Ordinance and Northwest Ordinance
  • The Land Ordinance was a plan for the survey and sale of lands. The sale of these lands helped Congress pay off debt and also provided for public education. The Northwest Ordinance was a pre-statehood plan : (1) At 60,000 inhabitants, could apply for statehood (2) Bill of Rights w/ religious freedom, legislative representation by population, trial by jury (3) Exclusion of slavery in the Northwest territory.
• Shays’ Rebellion
  • MA gov’t est. high taxes to pay off war debt → Poor farmers can’t pay taxes, get foreclosed → No property → Can’t vote → “Taxation w/out Representation” → Violence turns fear of tyranny into fear of anarchy → Need for stronger central gov’t
• Constitutional Convention
  • VA Plan calls for new document w/ 2 house legislature, 3 branches w/ checks and balances, federal gov’t > state gov’t.
  • NJ Plan calls for revision of AOC w/ unicameral legislature, Congressional regulation/taxation, veto-less executive
• Great Compromise
  • House of Reps based on population, Senate equal for each state
• 3/5 Compromise and 1808 Slave Trade Compromise
  • 3/5 Compromise est. slaves as 3/5 of a person in counting for representation. 1808 Slave Trade Compromise est. that transatlantic trade is allowed before 1808 w/ per head tax

• Electoral College
  • Compromise between congressional election and popular election. The people elect electors who elect the president.
  • Created due to fear of the common people having too much power
• Federalist Papers
  • Hamilton, Jay, and Madison explain the importance of a strong centralized federal gov’t
• Bill of Rights
  • Convinces people of the Constitution by ensuring them that the federal gov’t will not infringe upon their rights and become a force of tyranny.
• Influence of Enlightenment on Revolution and Constitution
  • Contract theory -- right of people to rebel against a bad gov’t influenced the Revolution. Natural rights -- the idea of unalienable rights influenced the Constitution, especially the Bill of Rights which is essentially an enumeration of the rights of Americans → equality under the law.

%%Unit 3%%

Washington

• Hamilton’s Plan (Sparks divisive discussions and partisan conflict)
  • Report on credit (assumption of debt) to establish credibility which in turn attracts trading partners and united nation by creating one national debt instead of several state debts
  • National bank provides stability with credit which hadn’t existed under the Articles of Confederation yet also creates issues over constitutionality
  • Excise tax created to provide revenue to fund debt yet also leads to the
  • Whiskey Rebellion.
  • Response to excise tax in PA backcountry (farmers made most profit from distilling grains and making whiskey). Nat’l gov’t wants to create revenue through the tax, but backcountry farmers see national gov’t as trying to pick the pockets of the poor. Creates resentment toward national gov’t as tyrannical force, support for Republicans in the backcountry.
  • Report on manufacturers (protective tariff) was necessary to protect from European competition, helps develop manufacturing sector and self sufficiency
• Federalists vs Democratic-Republicans

• Proclamation of Neutrality
  • Declares U.S. neither supports Britain nor France -- GW chooses not to declare Treaty of Alliance void like AH wants nor use Treaty of Alliance as bargaining point like TJ wants. Nation not strong enough to endure war, aim to preserve open trade relations. Gives U.S. time to strengthen and develop, sets precedent for future neutrality.
• Jay’s Treaty
  • Treaty w/ Britain averts war and eliminates British from NW forts. British were disrespecting naval neutrality, inciting attacks on frontier (issue w/ NW forts), restricting West Indies trade. Averts war thus preserving the nation, opens up NW territories further thus leading to expansion, unofficially puts US against French ( → Quasi naval war), division within US (especially with unresolved issue of Rev War slave compensation and support of France / Britain) Unpopular***!***
• Pinckney’s Treaty
  • Treaty w/ Spanish opens up MI River and NOLA, prevents further inciting of native rebellion b/c westerners want new trade opportunities, issues w/ natives. Creates new trade opportunities and promotes further expansion
• Farewell Address
  • Advocates against permanent alliances, divisive partisanism b/c permanent alliances will lead to war and partisanism will lead to division. Sets precedent

Adams

• Quasi naval war
  • Undeclared naval war w/ France b/c Jay’s Treaty allies U.S. with Britain, against France. Leads to naval development, ends Treaty of Alliance
• XYZ Affair
  • John Adams attempts to avoid war w/ France by negotiating with them, but France doesn’t want to negotiate. France tries to bribe them, U.S. ministers refuse. Showed people that U.S. wouldn’t be so easily pushed around
• Alien and Sedition Acts
  • Limit freedom of speech and immigration. A federalist attempt to limit Republicans, who frequently criticized them in the press and had much immigrant support. This deepened sectional divides, led to Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
  • Opposition by states to Alien/Sedition Acts in order to obstruct the progress of evil. Sets precedent for nullification

Jefferson

• Revolution of 1800
  • Transfer of power from Federalists to Republicans. TJ got elected and he was a Republican. This was the first transfer of partisan power and it deepened partisan divides. Jefferson attempts unity w/ “We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists”
• Marbury vs Madison
  • Issue w/ Federalist appointment b/c of the issue of constitutionality. Est the process of judicial review.
• Barbary Pirates
  • Have to pay ransom for captured ships in North Africa b/c TJ decided to spend less on naval force. This makes U.S. appear weaker.
• Louisiana Purchase
  • Treaty of Cession gives U.S. huge chunk of land. Napoleon was losing the war in Haiti and wanted to cut his losses in New France. The purchase expanded territory and led to reversal of roles in terms of constitutional interpretation, b/c it was nowhere stated in the constitution that a president could purchase land, but the Federalists used strict interpretation to try to prevent expansion, which they believed would weaken their power. The Republicans used loose interpretation to support expansion, which promoted the interests of their supporters, who were mostly farmers.
• Impressment
  • British practice of capturing the crew of U.S. ships and forcing them to fight for the British. They did this to force the U.S. to be non neutral and support Britain. Impressment lead to greater conflict and War of 1812
• Chesapeake and Leopard
  • British Leopard attacks U.S. Chesapeake after the Chesapeake refuses to allow the British on board to search for deserters. The British did this to force the U.S. to be non neutral and support Britain. This escalated tensions, lead to greater conflict and War of 1812.
• Embargo Act
  • Prevents all exports as an attempt at peaceful coercion to force Britain and France from intervening in US neutrality. This immediately led to economic depression but in the long term promoted manufacturing and self sufficiency.

Madison

• Tecumseh and Tippecanoe
  • Tecumseh attempts to unite tribes east of Mississippi because he wants to prevent further expansion. Native voices which were mostly ignored by white settlers moving westward. Defeated at Tippecanoe.
• War of 1812
  • War with Britain over trading and Canada. It was caused by expansionist tendencies in Canada + impressment issues. The war hawks were an aggressive group committed to going to war for the sake of expanding into new lands. The war created nationalism + better relations with Britain
• Treaty of Ghent
  • Treaty that ends the War of 1812 and returns original boundaries. The British no longer wanted war in the U.S. → Creates patriotism + ends threat of N/E secession @ Hartford Convention
  • Federalists created amendments to limit Republican power because they wanted to reestablish selves as dominant party. Also, they viewed the War of 1812 as a war that was not fought for national interest, but rather a war fought for the interests of war hawks, who were Republicans. This lead to the demise of Federalists because people viewed them as disloyal → single party politics
• American System
  • Economic plan, similar to Alexander Hamilton’s, which included a B.U.S., tariffs and internal improvements. It was created to help re-stabilize the economy after War of 1812. Protective tariff helps manufacturing sector and second B.U.S. re-stabilizes economy, internal improvements help connect expanding nation

Monroe

• Era of Good Feelings
  • Era of prosperity under Monroe due to single party politics, economic prosperity due to the American system. This allowed for less division.
• Adams-Onis Treaty
  • Treaty in which Spain ceded Florida to the U.S. Andrew Jackson raided Florida, and this showed Spain the power of U.S. and also demonstrated that Florida could not exist as a Spanish colony. This helps expansionism in U.S. + shows diplomatic power of the nation.
• Missouri Compromise
  • Admits MO as slave state, ME as free state, 36’30 parallel prohibiting future slavery in Western territories. This was created to maintain the balance between slave and free states -- neither side wanted the other to have more power. The compromise created a physical divide between North and South, merely puts issue on back burner, deepens sectional divides.
• Marshall Court
  • Dartmouth Vs. Woodward → State gov’t cannot get involved in private contracts
  • Maryland Vs. McCulloch → State can’t tax the nat’l bank and supremacy of national gov’t
  • Gibbons Vs. Ogden → National gov’t authority on interstate trade
  • These showed the authority of national gov’t over state gov’t
• Panic of 1819
  • A financial panic that began a three-year-long economic crisis triggered by a reduced demand of American imports, declining land values, and reckless practices by local and state banks.
• Monroe Doctrine
  • Statement attempting to discourage future European colonization of Western hemisphere. View any attempt at western hemisphere colonization as unfriendly to the United States. The statement was prompted by fears of reestablishment of Spanish colonial empire, and selfish desire to exploit/monopolize North American lands. Essentially disregarded but set precedent for future policies such as the Roosevelt Corollary.

%%Unit 4%%

Age of Jackson

• “Spoils System”
  • Jackson favors his friends with positions and appointments -- reward for loyalty-
• Maysville Road Veto

Jackson was unsupportive of using funds to finance internal improvements due to lack of constitutional provision. W/ Maysville Road, it was in Kentucky, so Jackson vetoed the bill b/c he disliked Clay

and b/c it only benefited one state, not all.

• Nullification Crisis
  • Tariff of Abominations: Southerners had mostly agricultural economy, as opposed to an industrial manufacturing Northern economy. Thus the high tariff, which they dubbed the Tariff of Abominations, hurt their economy.
  • Calhoun’s SC Exposition: Theory that state conventions could nullify unconstitutional federal laws. Denounces the tariff of abominations as unconstitutional and encourages states to nullify it. Rivalry w/ Jackson -- AJ supports state rights but NOT state defiance of a federal law).
  • Webster-Hayne Debate: Hayne represented the South/West faction, and believed that the gov’t threatened the union by benefitting one region at the expense of another. Webster represented the North, and took a more nationalistic view, that the nation was not simply an alliance of states but a united nation.
  • Compromise Tariff/Force Bill: The force bill allowed the president to use the army and navy to enforce duty collection of the Tariff of Abominations. The Compromise Tariff was passed the same day, however, making the force bill unnecessary, yet also creating a negative image of Jackson as a tyrant, as the force bill reminded many Americans of the armed tax collectors of colonial times. The Compromise Tariff included a gradual reduction of tariff rates.
• Indian Removal Act/Trail of Tears
  • Indian Removal Act relocated native americans to lands west of the Mississippi River
  • Worcester v. Georgia: The Cherokee declared their independence from Georgia -- Influx of white settlers on their land → appeal to supreme court → court rules that Georgia has no right to intervene in a sovereign entity -- Uphold federal power while also affirming the independence of the tribe from state gov’t
  • Georgia defies the Supreme Court, forcing the Cherokee to leave in the Trail of Tears, cruel and forced mass exodus of natives.
• Jackson’s Bank Veto
  • Jackson questions the constitutionality of the bank despite its effectiveness in maintaining stable currency. BUS President attempts recharter before elections. Jackson vetoed the bank recharter, leading to financial depression.
  • Pet Banks: State banks where Andrew Jackson placed the federal funds which had been in the BUS. Jackson did this to destroy the BUS, yet he did so assuming a prerogative which was not specifically enumerated in the Constitution. Pet banks lead to a speculative bout
  • Specie Circular: Requires all payment of lands to be made in hard money (gold / silver) to prevent speculation. Created difficulties for common men attempting to purchase land.
  • Panic of 1837: The pet banks issued paper money and financed speculation. The Specie

Circular caused many of the banks to collapse due to the sudden end to speculation and land sales. Cotton prices dropped. Without the organization of the Bank of the United states, The Panic of 1837 ensued.

• The Whigs/Election of 1840 (2nd party system)
  • Whigs support internal improvements, moral reform, strong central gov’t. Second party system = Democrats (Jackson--minimal nat’l gov’t) and Whigs (Clay--strong nat’l gov’t)
  • No real Whig Platform -- appealed to popular support with “Log Cabin and Hard Cider” which portrayed Harrison as a man of humble origins. Also appealed to public because Harrison was a general who had won at Tippecanoe, and his VP candidate was John Tyler → “Tippecanoe and Tyler too”
• Jacksonian Democracy and “the common man”
  • Jackson included the common man in politics more + eliminated elitism from gov’t by eradicating the BUS + w/ his rotation system which offered more opportunities to more people. Appealed to the common man because of his humble origins.

The Market Revolution

• New Technology during Market Revolution
  • Eli Whitney/Cotton Gin: Facilitates separating seed from cotton, increasing profitability of cotton. This tool allows for the expansion of slavery b/c allows for larger scale production. Whitney also invents idea of interchangeable parts.
  • John Deere/Steel Plow: Eases struggle of tilling soil, increasing agricultural activity
  • Cyrus McCormick/Mechanical Reaper: Increases scale of commercial agricultural by facilitating wheat production.
  • Samuel Morse/Telegraph: Allows for rapid exchange of information + communication
• Market Revolution/Market Economy
  • Expansion of the marketplace due to roads and canals which linked different regions/markets together. Increase in the exchange of goods and services.
• Transportation during Market Revolution
  • Roads: Southern roads were mostly unofficial trails, however in the North, major interstate roads like the Lancaster Turnpike and National Road (Cumberland Road) begin to be constructed
  • Steamboats: Revolutionize commerce on the Mississippi River → Two way commerce → Transcontinental market and agricultural empire
  • Canals: Erie Canal eases trade, unites North and West, decreases transportation costs, provides a link between manufacturing location and port city, NYC becomes an economic center for the country.
  • RR's: Reduce transportation costs, encourage settlement in west, aids in expansion of commercial agriculture, create new markets for railroad equipment (iron, etc)
• The Lowell System
  • Labor and production model w/ mechanized production and goal of establishing model factory community attracting a mostly female labor source. Industrial growth → efficiency and profit become more important than community.
• "Old Immigrants"
  • Northern and Western Europeans who came before 1880
  • Irish: Immigrated due to economic hardship and the Irish potato famine. Mostly industrial workers who lived in Eastern urban areas. B/c they were catholic, often discriminated against by largely Protestant American society. They were active in politics, esp. the Democratic party due to allure of “common man” → fear of political influence → discrimination
  • German: Immigrated due to failed political revolution. Mostly settled in rural areas in the Midwest. Diverse political and religious affiliation. Intellectuals → higher class
• Nativism / "Know Nothing Party"
  • Militant Protestants who disliked Catholics and immigrants. Disliked the Irish because they were Catholic and had strong voting influence. Disliked the Germans because they suspected them of political radicalism. Wanted to make naturalization stricter.

Revivalism, Reform, Society

• Deism
  • Rejected inherent depravity, divinity of Jesus, absolute truth of bible. Encouraged use of reason in religious matters and religious freedom. God is creator but doesn’t intervene, focused on natural laws and science
• Second Great Awakening
  • Democratic religion in which everyone has a shot at salvation -- refutes idea of original sin/predestination -- Grace by good works → Reform. Females influential in revivals → Expanding opportunities for women, esp. in reform movements.
  • Burned-Over District: Revivalism was strong esp. on the frontier where it provided sense of community through camp meetings, esp in W. NY burned over district. Charles Finney was an influential minister in the burned over district where he encouraged reform as a means to achieve salvation.
• Mormons / Joseph Smith
  • Preaches 2nd coming of Jesus, rejects original sin, denies hell, advocates polygamy
• Transcendentalism / Emerson and Thoreau
  • Transcendentalism was an intellectual movement centered around individual/direct connection w/ God and nature. Emerson encourages individualism and self-reliance, rejects conventionalism. Thoreau seeks to live fully w/o restraints of societal conventions by living in isolation in nature @ Walden Pond
• Horace Mann
  • Adv ocates public schools, succeeds in winning some state funding for education. Sets nationwide standard for public education.
• Temperance
  • American Temperance Union: Attempts to end drunkenness -- negative bodily / familial effects → poverty, importance of sobriety in industrial landscape. Creates propaganda to discourage from drinking.
  • Maine Laws: Prohibit sale of alcohol w/in state
• Dorothea Dix
  • Becomes active reformer of asylums -- helps transform state of mental illness institution + attitude toward mental illness. Example of female involvement in reform movement revolutionizing
• Cult of Domesticity
  • Idea that women belong in the domestic sphere, aims to increase respect for women and the role they play in society. Economic shift away from home economy to large scale market economy → Sentiment of domestic independence → Moral idealization of role of women w/in the domestic sphere.
  • Seneca Falls Convention: First modern women’s rights convention → early feminists create the Declaration of Sentiments: Calls for equality of men and women, lists discriminations against women, calls for women’s suffrage.
• Utopian Communities and perfectionism
  • Shakers / Ann Lee: Celibacy, separation of men and women, communal living, duality of God → Male = Jesus, Female = Ann Lee, the woman who began the mvmt.
  • Oneida Community / John Humphrey Noyes: Shared sexual partners “free love” w/ communal living. Also produced silverware after being reprimanded for said free love.
  • New Harmony / Robert Owen: Secular community preliminary attempt at socialism / communism, fails b/c unequal sharing of workload.
  • Brooke Farm: Transcendentalist experiment in communal living,
• Characteristics of the Old South
  • Demographics: Biracial → whites (poor and rich unified to maintain unfair system of superiority) and blacks (slaves). Almost all are native born - few opportunities for immigrants b/c slave labor is dominant so ce of cheap labor.
  • Economy/agriculture: Southern cash crop agriculture. Reject industrialism b/c aristocratic obsession w/ land as measure of wealth, attitude that slaves unfit for factory labor, “Cotton is King” → believe that agricultural economy is superior
• Southern Social Structure
  • Planters vs. subsistence farmers: Planters employed large labor force (slaves) to produce cash/staple crops for commercial use. Subsistence farmers were usually middle class small yeomen farmers.
  • Poor Whites: Least desirable land YET support slavery to maintain sense of superiority
  • Slaves and Freed slaves: Freed slaves often subject to unfair legal restrictions. Slaves are lowest in social hierarchy. Work mostly on plantations, in the fields or as house servants. Despite end to international slave trade, slave population grows through domestic slave trade, forcing sexual relations onto slave women.
• Slave Rebellions
  • Gabriel Prosser: Plans to seize Richmond and slaughter whites → Fails
  • Denmark Vessey: Plans to assault whites, burn Charleston, seize ships → Fails
  • Nat Turner: Divine mission to lead slave revolt, kills many whites → VA militia responds violently, VA legislature solidifies slavery, Fear of widespread slave revolt.
  • David Walker Appeal to the Colored Citizens: Calls for immediate end of slavery through physical revolt to destroy white supremacy.
• American Colonization Society
  • Proposition to return freed slaves to Africa to est. a colony in Liberia, unsupported by free blacks.
• William L. Garrison/The Liberator
  • Garrison, pacifist abolitionist, creates abolitionist newspaper calling for immediate elimination of slavery -- Gradualism → abolitionism
• American Antislavery Society
  • Advocates immediate abandonment of slavery, condemns Constitution as a pro-slavery document.
  • Role of women: Grimke sisters help achieve equal participation for women.
• Frederick Douglass
  • Former slave, renowned abolitionist due to first hand knowledge / ability to speak, many writings including his narrative on slavery
• Sojourner Truth
  • Former slave, fights for both abolitionism and feminism, travels and gives powerful testimonials that intersected both movements, active ipn involving women in reform mvmts.
• Underground Railroad
  • Organization & system of safe houses and shelters along routes to freedom, “conductors” were freeborn blacks, white abolitionists, former slaves, & Native Americans
  • Harriet Tubman- returned to South 19 times to rescue over 300 slaves, hero
• “Gag Rule”
  • Allows House of Representatives to ignore the issue of slavery -- all petitions relating to slavery would be laid on the table w/o review.
• Paternalism
  • Justification = slaves provide labor in return for protection and care of master

%%Unit 5%%

Expansion

• Webster-Ashburton Treaty
  • Treaty between Great Britain and USA, signed August 1842-
  • Some slaves took over a ship and sailed to the British Bahamas, where Great Britain freed them, Southerners angry, leading to tensions with Great Britain
  • President John Tyler feared a war with Great Britain, so, gave in to British demands to maintain good relations
  • Agreed to have joint naval patrols off the coast of Africa to prevent the slave trade, settle the Northeastern border dispute (between Canada and US)
  • Didn’t do anything about the freed slaves, so many Southerners are still angry
• John O’Sullivan/Manifest Destiny
  • John O’Sullivan (Democrat columnist) coined the term manifest destiny, a religious/moral justification for westward expansion as a God-given destiny to establish a continental United States and to spread American institutions.
• Oregon Trail/”54 40 or Fight”
  • To win the 1844 Election w/ expansionist platform supporting annexation of Texas, Democrats had to please Northerners + demonstrate willingness to maintain slave/free balance. Oregon would provide free state to maintain balance, thus the slogan “54 40 or Fight” → advocates negotiation for all of Oregon territory, Polk secretly favors compromise w/ powerful British, settles conflict via negotiations.
• Treaty Fort Laramie/Reservation System
  • As Americans moved Westward on Oregon and Overland Trails, ecological damage caused was severe b/c wagons, buffalo, federal cavalry, and horses (Natives hunted buffalo for settlers). Combined w/ severe drought → Impoverished population of Natives, harassing white settlers for survival. Gov’t negotiates to pay natives for damage the settlers were inflicting, in return for being able to build forts and for an agreement to “stay within their boundaries” -- Sets precedent for reservation system
• Texas Revolution/Annexation
  • Stephen Austin was given land in Texas, attracting Americans looking for cheap lands to farm (esp. cotton) → Influx of slavery, which Mexico did not want → MX prohibits further immigration → Americans in Texas revolt against dictator General de Santa Anna. Defenders of Alamo defeated, Texans sign declaration of independence and creating constitution. The Lone Star Republic (Texas as independent country) was formed. Sam Houston leads heroic “Remember the Alamo” victory, in which de Santa Anna is captured and forced to recognize Texas’ independence -- b/c he acted as a dictator (independently from Mexican Congress) → later complications. Texas applies for admission into union, however even fierce proponents of slavery know better than to upset free/slave balance. Texas seeks support from France and Britain → Fear of re-establishment of European colonial empires.
• James K. Polk/”Dark Horse”
  • Clay (Whig) and Van Buren (Democrat) both opposed Texas annexation. Democrats are pro annexation so they pass over Van Buren in favor of “dark horse” James K Polk. Strong expansionist platform forces Clay to take more neutral stance, Polk wins. Plan = continuation of Andrew Jackson’s anti-economic ntl’ism plan, w/ tariff reductions to benefit Southern agrarian economy, Independent Treasury instead of BUS to regulate economy w/out excessive federal gov’t influence, strong stance on gaining Oregon (see 54 40 or Fight), intention of gaining California and New Mexico.
• Mexican-American War – causes
  • Polk sends John Slidell to MX to attempt to negotiate for purchases of TX, NM, CA, however they refused to see the diplomat, rejecting Slidell → Polk sends troops to disputed territory in S TX / N MX → Mexican troops kill some Americans → War declaration that “blood had been shed on American soil.” Lincoln questions this in spot resolutions, calling for Polk to name the American land upon which blood had been spilt. Many denounce war as “Mr Polk’s War,” and Henry David Thoreau refused to pay taxes which would support the war, leading to imprisonment and essay Civil Disobedience.
• Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo – effects
  • The war ends w/ Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo → settles TX-MX border dispute and cession of NM + CA → USA is now continental empire, military leaders of Civil War.
• Wilmot Proviso
  • Introduces idea that slavery should not be extended in territories. Continuation of Missouri Compromise and Northwest Ordinance.
• Popular Sovereignty
  • Suggestion for resolving issue of extending slavery -- allow white male voters of the territory to vote on it and choose for themselves.
• Free-Soil Coalition (Free-Soil Party)
  • Growing opposition to extension of slavery into the territories -- Conscience Whigs, Van Burenite Democrats, Liberty Party → Free Soil Coalition w/ candidate Van Buren
• California Gold Rush/Forty-Niners
  • Gold discovered before California cession → mass migration → enough population to apply for statehood w/ free state constitution. Aligns w/ Z. Taylor’s belief that slavery should not be extended where it is impractical
• Compromise of 1850 (all provisions)
  • CA applies for statehood → Congress forced to address issue of extending slavery. Clay presents plan, which Taylor adamantly opposes, but when Taylor dies, Fillmore signs the Compromise of 1850. 1) California admitted as free state 2) Popular sovereignty in New Mexico and Utah 3) No slave trade in DC 4) Fugitive Slave Act makes it federal govt’s responsibility to catch fugitive slaves.
• Uncle Tom’s Cabin**/Harriet Beecher Stowe**
  • Makes public aware of evils of slavery → antislavery sentiment among Northerners.
• Commodore Matthew Perry
  • Est. trade relationship w/ Japan → continental US available to more Asian markets.
• Gadsden Purchase
  • Small tract of land near NM/AZ purchased for purpose of transcontinental railroad. Contentious issue over what route the railroad should take reignites sectionalism.
• Kansas-Nebraska Act
  • Douglas needs Southern support of transcontinental railroad route through Chicago, but this route goes through unorganized territories. Kansas Nebraska Act creates Kansas Territory and Nebraska Territory, w/ popular sovereignty as deciding factor of slave vs free. Effectively repealed Missouri Compromise bc allows for possibility of slavery north of 36 30 parallel. By invalidating Missouri Compromise, Northerners viewed KA-NE Act as opportunity to disobey Fugitive Slave Act. Northern whigs, independent Democrats, and Free Soil Party combine to form the Republican Party.
  • In Kansas, both sides attempt to sway the vote to support their party’s beliefs. Border ruffians from Missouri invade Kansas and corrupt the vote → Proslavery gov’t. However, anti slavery inhabitants of Kansas create their own anti slavery government, → bleeding kansas. Fraudulently elected pro slavery convention submits proslavery Lecompton Constitution, however public overwhelmingly opposes this, delaying Kansas’ entrance into the Union.
• John Brown
  • Tensions in Kansas culminated in physical violence. After anti-slavery gov’t is attacked, Brown retaliates w/ Pottawatomie Massacre = he kills entire family. Later, he reappeared at Harper’s Ferry = he attempted to invade federal arsenal, gathering weapons to arm the slaves and create slave uprising. Raid fails → martyr for abolitionist cause + Southern association of militants like Brown w/ Republican party. Up
• Brooks-Sumner Incident
  • Violence spills over into Senate, w/ Brooks attacking Sumner w/ a cane.
• Republican Platform
  • In 1856 election, Republicans oppose slavery, support internal improvements, support candidate John C Fremont with slogan “free soil, free speech, Fremont”
• Democratic Platform
  • Support Kansas-Nebraska Act, Congressional noninterference with slavery, enforcement of Fugitive Slave Act -- nominee James Buchanan wins
• Dred Scott Decision
  • Issue of if black becomes slave by going to slave state -- Taney indirectly states that MO Comp infringes upon 5th Amendment due process clause by denying property rights. Basically writes into law that slaves are less than human and that in essence no state is a free state…
• Lincoln Douglas Debates
  • During 1858 Illinois Congressional Election, Republican Lincoln vs Democrat Douglas. Lincoln challenges Douglas to series of debates. @ Freeport, Lincoln asks Douglas to reconcile popular sovereignty w/ t decision → Freeport Doctrine federal laws have no standing if local legislators/police don’t enforce them. Lincoln expresses growing sentiment that the Union cannot prevail half slave, half free → “house divided can’t stand” = House Divided Speech

The Civil War

• Strengths/Weaknesses of North/South:
  • North: (+) Has much more industrial developments (railroads), larger population of able bodied men for military service, self sufficient. (-) Unfamiliar terrain, poor leadership
  • South: (+) Fighting defensive war on familiar territory, experienced military leaders, portray selves as victims of tyrannical gov’t + protectors of states rights. (-) Dependent on North for industry (little to no industrial development), no foreign support (esp. bc they are defenders of slavery), small population of able bodied men for military service (much of population is slaves)
• Anaconda Plan
  • 3 pronged Union plan of attack 1) protect DC while applying pressure to Confederate capital @ Richmond. 2) naval blockade prevents foreign aid + shuts down southern economy 3) invasion via major water routes (MI, TE, Cumberland Rivers)
• Conscription
  • South: 17-50, exemption by paying 500$ or bombproof jobs or by having a certain amount of slaves or by finding able bodied non draft age substitute → “Rich man’s war, poor man’s fight”
  • North: 20-45, exemption by paying 300$ or certain federal/state officeholders → racial tensions esp in NYC w/ riots in response 2 draft→if war about AA they should participate
• Antietam/Emancipation Proclamation
  • Lincoln requires victory to act in emancipating the slaves. After victory @ Antietam, moves forward w/ emancipation proclamation. Crafted such that it only freed slaves in states in rebellion -- where Union gov’t technically had no jurisdiction. This was so that Lincoln would not alienate border states, while changing the focus of the war from Union to Slavery (discouraged foreign aid to the Confederacy)
• Social/Econ/Political Effects of War:
  • Role of African Americans: After emancipation proclamation, slaves join Union forces. Often formed independent regiments. Courage → more respect + acceptance
  • Role of women: Conscription meant that most men were forced to leave their homes, forcing women into their roles. Many women served as nurses, inspired by females such as Clara Barton and Dorothea Dix.
  • Financing the war: Both the Union and Confederacy used a combination of taxes,
  • printing money, and bonds to fund the war effort. In Confederacy, collecting taxes was left to individual States → inefficiency. Paper money printed excessively → inflation. In Union, Morrill Tax → revenue, establishment of Internal Revenue Service → first income tax, both of which created funds for war. Legal Tender Act led to the printing of paper money known as “greenbacks” (later → problems w/ hard vs soft money).
  • Suspending Habeas Corpus: Lincoln passes Habeas Corpus Act, gives president power to suspend habeas corpus → people can be arrested w/o having to produce a reason for arrest. Allows Lincoln to imprison open sympathizers to confederacy and keep DC in the Union by preventing Maryland secession.
• Battle of Gettysburg/Gettysburg Address
  • Last Confederate offensive at Gettysburg. Many casualties → Lincoln’s famous Gettysburg Address to inspire perseverance -- cannot go back to the way things once were, after loss and bloodshed of Civil War→ transforms the war from re-establishing union to war to abolish slavery→ ups Northern morale; prevents euro allies ALSO shifts purpose of war from union to slavery.
• Sherman’s March/Total War.
  • Sherman marches through Georgia waging total war, leaving a path of destruction. Connects rebellion of Confederate states to the people and their mindset -- seeks to completely demoralize them by a `complete victory (complete destruction)

Reconstruction

• 13th Amendment
  • Officially abolished slavery (throughout the U.S.)
• The Freedmen's Bureau
  • Provides aid to freedmen -- education, food, land, medical aid, labor contracts, etc. Social welfare → short term success.
• Proclamation of Amnesty (10% Plan)
  • Lincoln’s reconstruction plan viewed as lenient. Necessitates 10% of male voters (excluding Confederate officials) to take oath for re-establishment of state gov’t.
• Radical Republicans/Wade Davis Bill
  • Radical Republicans believed it was legislative branch’s prerogative to lead Reconstruction, wanted to revolutionize southern social order, by creating complete racial equality. W/ Wade Davis Bill (which Lincoln ultimately vetoed), they est. that a majority male voters had to declare allegiance + ironclad oath for re-establishment of state gov’t, ensuring that reconstructed states wouldn’t be led by secessionists.
• Black Codes
  • Southern state legislatures create black codes by finding loopholes through which to subjugate blacks w/o enslaving them.
• Civil Rights Act/14th Amendment
  • Overriding Johnson’s veto, Civil Rights Act est. native born blacks as citizens and lengthened the life of the Freedmen’s Bureau. The 14th Amendment protects citizenship of all people, due process and equal protection under the law. Often violated b/c only specifies state action, allowing individuals to take discriminate w/o repercussions.
• Congressional Reconstruction Acts of 1867 (Military Reconstruction)
  • Organizes South into 5 military districts, requires universal male suffrage in state constitutions and ratification of 14th amendment
• 15th Amendment
  • Prohibits denial of voting on race/color/previous condition of servitude
• Sharecropping
  • Blacks work land as tenants and give landowner a share of the crop, cycle of debt → reliance on landowner → essentially slavery
• Carpetbaggers and Scalawags
  • Carpetbaggers = Northerners who came South for Reconstruction political spoils; Scalawags = Native white republicans
• KKK
  • Intimidates white republicans + African American republicans w/ violence. Government opposition is weak and ineffective → Failure to gain rights for blacks, as KKK oppression + Apathy of Northerners, who prioritized economy / unity → No advocacy for blacks, who themselves don’t have much agency in society
• Compromise of 1877
  • In the 1876 Election between Democrat Tilden and Republican Hayes, there were contested ballots from states which would decide the winner. During the campaign, Republicans “waved the bloody shirt”, reminding voters that Democrats were same secessionists who they had fought in Civil War. To get Hayes into the White House, in the Compromise of 1877, Republicans agree to withdraw remaining troops from South, returning states to “home rule”, essentially reverting southern politics to being ruled by the white elite.

%%Unit 6%%

• Causes of Industrialization

  • Interconnected national transportation and communications network → expansion of the national market
  • Electricity allows for more efficient industrial machinery
  • Systematic scientific research and innovation → improved industrial processes

• Homestead Act

  • People can get land titles by owning and improving land for 5 years. Intent was to give land to farmers, however in reality, it was often used by railroad companies to get cheap land to build the railroads.

• Transcontinental Railroad

  • The Pacific Railroads Act est. a north central route w/ one company working westward, another working eastward.
  • The role of government: Railroads built by private investors, gov’t provides land grants, zloans, subsidies to encourage unity through expansion. Aside from this, gov’t took laissez faire approach to economy → noninterference → growth of big business → protectionism is no longer necessary b/c industry has been developed.
  • Positive and negative effects: (+) Unites the nation, binds together regions in nat’l market, allows for faster and cheaper travel (-) Railroad barons dominate industry

• Captains of Industry vs. Robber Barons

  • Captain of Industry uses wealth to benefit society (through anthropy
  • innovations, improvements to industrial methods that are beneficial to the general welfare). Robber Baron acquires wealth through ruthless means, shady financial practices, singular objective of increasing their own wealth not benefiting society.

• John D. Rockefeller (oil)

  • Vertical Integration and horizontal consolidation: Vertical integration is the practice of having all processes owned by one company, eliminating any middlemen. Horizontal consolidation is the practice of consolidating enterprises through mergers between similar firms.
  • Trusts: Consortium of enterprises controlled by trustees. Rockefeller introduces the idea of a trust w/ Standard Oil Trust, controlled by a board of nine trustees. The gov’t orders the trust dissolved, as it monopolizes the oil industry, violating the Sherman Antitrust Act.
  • Interlocking Directorates: After the gov’t destroyed Rockefeller’s trust, he essentially recreated it through a system of interlocking directorates, in which the board of 3 directors of one of the Standard Oil enterprises were essentially identical to the board of directors of another of the Standard Oil enterprises → Overlap of board of directors → Maintain control by having a few people run all of the companies.

• Andrew Carnegie (steel)

  • Bessemer process: Process to make steel from crude iron in a blast furnace → makes steel cheap → accessibility → railroads and steel frame buildings (→ urbanization)
  • Business practices: Up to date equipment, buys out struggling companies during recessions, encourages continual innovation to reduce operating costs.

• Gospel of Wealth

  • Applies the law of human competition to business → excess wealth would prevent those who possessed it from going to heaven. Therefore, the only way to achieve salvation was to give away wealth to charities and anthropic causes.

• National Labor Union

  • Welcomes skilled and unskilled laborers → More committed to social reform than using bargaining to improve labor conditions. Works to est. 8 hr day for federal gov’t employees and repeal of Contract Labor Act (essentially indentured servitude which allowed for big business to import cheap immigrant labor).

• Knights of Labor

  • Welcomes skilled and unskilled laborers → Platform endorses creation of bureau of labor statistics, elimination of convict labor competition, est. of 8 hr workday, use of paper currency (→ inflation), equal pay for equal work for men and women. Preferred boycotts and reform measures to strikes, and when strikes did occur, leadership of KofL did not always support the local groups.

• Haymarket Affair

  • Small anarchist meeting in Chicago to protest a killing that had earlier occurred between strikers and policemen. This meeting turned into a violent clash when a bomb was thrown at the police and the police fired back → People associate KofL w/ anarchist 1movement → downfall of KofL -- however legacy of the industrial union, a union in which skilled and unskilled laborers come together to bargain for better conditions

• American Federation of Labor

  • Craft (skilled) unions oppose industrial (skilled + unskilled) unions → AF of L -- Samuel Gompers advocates higher wages, shorter hours, better conditions, uses strikes to bargain for better agreements, including closed shops (agreements to only hire union workrs) and union-preference shops (agreements to only hire non-union workers if no union workers are available).

• Homestead Strike

  • Steelworkers of Homestead go on strike when their union contract is denied renewal. Carnegie and Frick attempt to smash the union in order to cut costs → violence w/ Pinkerton detectives. Anarchist involvement → waning support for strikers → end of Homestead Strike -- Power of industrial capitalists.

• Pullman Strike

  • Strike at industrial town of Pullman, IL. Many workers were involved in American Railway Union, thus all the union workers refused to handle Pullman Cars. The gov’t connected federal mail cars to Pullman cars b/c interference w/ delivery of the mail was illegal. The federal gov’t used armed forces to ensure that the strikers did not interfere with the Pullman cars, highlighting the laissez faire attitude which benefitted big business.

• Sherman Antitrust Act

  • The purpose of the act was to break up monopolies. However the act was phrased such that it banned anything which restricted trade. It was often applied to strikes, b/c the gov’t made the argument that if a strike interfered with trade (which it most always did) then it was in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act, therefore making it illegal.

• IWW/the Wobblies

  • Attempt at industrial unionism. Goal = syndicalism or replacement of gov’t with one big union. The Wobblies represented the elements of labor with the least power and influence (migrant farmers in West, etc) → poor bargaining power → inability to enact change.

• Urbanization

  • Vertical growth due to steam circulating radiators, elevators, steel + iron frames.
  • Horizontal growth due to transportation improvements → suburbanization of middle commuting class → socioeconomic segregation. Unregulated urban growth → overcrowding → poor sanitation, health, morale, standard of living.

• Tenements (“dumbbell tenements”)

  • Multi-storied shared living space, often overcrowded due to influx of urban industrial workers. Dumbbell tenements have the narrow-waisted shape of lassa dumbbell w/ narrow inner air shaft to provide for “windows” (a law had mandated that tenements must have windows, thus the builders found loopholes by including narrow air shafts between adjacent buildings).

• Political Machines

  • Local government -- committeemen and district captains led by political boss who awards patronage (jobs, favors) to loyal supporters and engages in corrupt actions while simultaneously providing necessary services to improve urban areas.

• Boss Tweed/Tammany Hall

  • Boss Tweed controlled the Tammany Hall machine of New York City. He mostly used the ring to embezzle municipal gov’t money from taxpayers, but sometimes used his power to improve the state of the people he represented.

• “New Immigrants”

  • New Immigrants were usually Slavs or Jews from Southern and Eastern Europe.
  • Ethnic neighborhoods: They often attracted newcomers as transitional communities as immigrants shifted from an Old World past to a New World future. Here, immigrants practiced their native religions, maintained native customs, spoke in native language. The downside was that as newer immigrants moved in, older immigrants moved out, leaving new immigrants with few connections, little power, and no prestige.
  • Reasons for immigration: (Push) Famine, lack of opportunity, racial/religious/political persecution, compulsory military service (Pull) Propaganda, recruiting agents, Contract Labor Act, general idea of big business promoting immigration so as to build a large supply of cheap labor to exploit b/c immigrants have no other options → easier to exploit
  • Nativism: Anti-Catholic, Anti-Immigration, advocate gov’t restrictions on immigration, stricter naturalization period, workplaces that exclude immigrant labor → main concern was reserving opportunities for Americans → fear of immigrants taking all of the jobs and opportunities
  • Chinese Exclusion Act: Anti Chinese sentiment b/c Chinese were not white, were not Christian, were not literate, accepted lower wages → Chinese Exclusion Act. Over presidential veto, the act prohibits Chinese immigration for 10 years.

• Social Darwinism

  • Applies evolutionary theory to social world, to explain class divisions and wealth disparities → “natural selection” → basically a moral justification for imperialism, elitism, racism.
  • Survival of the fittest: Implies that society has evolved for the better, and that wealthy are fittest and that they are superior in some way. Discourages intervention in the process, b/c by intervening one helps the “unfit” survive and this impedes progress.
  • Believed in laissez faire form of government. If monopolization of an industry meant that the industry was in the hands of the “fittest” business man, then that would be beneficial to society as a whole. Government intervention would only impeded progress by allowing the unfit to survive.

• The Social Gospel

  • A reform led by Protestants aimed at demanding better housing and living conditions for urban poor. Shift in idea that religion is more in the actions you take to improve the lives of others than in the biblical doctrines → reform through legislation, charity

• Jane Addams/Hull (settlement) House

  • Addams takes a pragmatic approach to resolve problems of slums (mostly immigrants) → seeks practical solutions to fill the needs of the working poor.
  • Hull House is run by middle class idealists to provide necessary services to poor : English language classes, childcare for working mothers, counseling, community activities to help immigrants adjust to new life in America.

• Democratic and Republican Platform/Supporters

  • Democrats: Heterogeneous -- S. male, immigrants, Catholics, Jews, etc.
  • Republicans: Mostly protestants of British descent, Northerners, Union veterans, Enfranchised African Americans → Nativist policy, prohibitionism, high tariffs.

• Munn v. Illinois/Wabash v. Illinois

  • Munn v Illinois affirms the state's right to regulate trade and property → seemed like gov’t was moving away from laissez faire and beginning to regulate big business. However Wabash v Illinois contradicted the previous ruling by denying the state's power to regulate interstate traffic / railroads.

• Interstate Commerce Act

  • In response to the judicial branch denying the state’s right to regulate railroads. The act creates the Interstate Commerce Committee an independent federal regulatory committee designed to regulate the railroad industry and its rates. However, it was mostly ignored and not effective, much like the Sherman Antitrust Act.

• The Grange/Farmers’ Alliance

  • Grange usually attracts larger, more prosperous farmers, whose isolation and individualism makes them weak against monopolistic alliances of big business and government. Transforms into advocate for farmer owned cooperatives, which would liberate farmers from having to pay exorbitant middleman fees to railroad and warehouse companies. Enacts series of laws known as Granger laws, mostly ineffective regulatory laws that laid a foundation for future, stronger legislation.
  • ↓ Grange → Farmers’ Alliances ↑ -- Grassroots organization. Attracts farmers due to sense of community. Develops elaborate economic plan known as “subtreasury plan” which would allow farmers to store crops in new gov’t warehouses and obtain gov’t bonds so that they wouldn’t be trapped in destructive cycle of debt. Failure in Congress → farmers need political power.

• Populist Party (People’s Party)

  • Reasons for agrarian revolt: Farmers were in debt b/c big businesses charged high middleman fees, lack of gov’t support/regulation for common people → laissez faire, divine inspiration/religious influence.
  • Populist Platform: Subtreasury plan, increased money supply, graduated income tax, nationalization of railroads, 8 hr workday / labor reform (→ to attract urban workers), immigration restriction (→ to attract nativists)
  • Free and unlimited coinage: Populists advocated increasing the money supply by allowing for both silver and gold coins → inflation → easier to pay off debts

• Panic of 1893

  • Nation’s money supply lacked flexibility to grow w/ expanding economy. Currency deflation → more difficult to borrow money. Gov’t attempts to resolve contracted money supply w/ silver coinage, yet ineffective → Railroad companies go bankrupt → Panic of 1893 → strikes, unemployment

• William Jennings Bryan/Election of 1896

  • Election of 1896 focused mainly on issue of gold vs silver. Republicans = gold standard platform. Democrats roused by William Jennings Bryan’s Cross of Gold Speech → pro silver platform → pro-gold Democrats nominate their own candidate. Populists had hoped to monopolize on money issue by declaring silver standard platform, however due to strength of Bryan and the Democrats, the Populists instead decided to endorse Bryan → Loss of Populist identity.
  • Bryan advocates social gospel and expansion of federal gov’t to promote common people. McKinley portrays Bryan as communistic candidate out to ruin capitalist system → well funded campaign → McKinley’s victory.
  • McKinley enacts highest tariff ever, inflates currency to return economic prosperity.

Unit 7

New West

• shift from reservation system --> americanization and assimilation attempts

Imperialism

• imperialism due to desire for national power, commercial interest, sense of cultural superiority, christian missionary tendencies.
• isolationism --> interventionism

parProgressivism

• shift from laissez faire --> gov’t intervention due to progressivism

Context

New West

Imperialism

Progressivism

• industrial revolution
• social gospel
• darwinian thinking
  • pragmatism / reform darwinism

The New West

• Gold/Silver Mining
  • Shift from individual mining to large scale commercial mining. Mineral discoveries such as the discovery of gold at the Comstock Lode led to a population influx in the West and the admission of 10 new states. New mining techniques such as hydraulic mining has negative implications for the environment, prompting downstream farmers to protest commercial mining.
• Treaty of Fort Laramie
  • Establishes the idea of reservation system. The federal government gave the tribes money in exchange for staying within the set boundaries.
• Native American Wars
  • As the frontier pressed in from East and West, encroachments upon lands given to Native Americans under reservation treaties led to conflict. The Indian Appropriation Act ended recognition of tribes as independent and voided previous treaties.
  • In the South, the Red River War ends with the Native Americans being forced to disband. This resulted in the destruction of tribal bonds.
  • Sand Creek Massacre: At Sand Creek, an untrained militia attacks a peaceful Indian camp carrying a white flag of truce.
  • In the North, the army’s purpose was to protect the natives from land encroachment. However, not only did they turn a blind eye to gold miners infringing on the land, but h,they also attacked Native Americans hunting on the reservation according to their treaty rights. At the Battle of Little Bighorn, the Sioux, led by Chief Sitting Bull destroyed Custer’s detachment. However, the Great Sioux War ended in typical fashion, with the natives being forced onto the worst lands.
  • Native American resistance was revived by the Ghost Craze(Ghost Dance Movement), which spread the messianic idea that the future would bring a return to prosperity and a restoration of lands. At The Battle of Wounded Knee, the US government massacred natives due to their refusal to cease the ghost dance. This massacre represented the end to the Indian War in a characteristic bloodbath.
• Helen Hunt Jackson/Century of Dishonor
  • Chronicles the injustices and atrocities committed by the US toward Native Americans. This created sympathy for natives yet also generated support for assimilationist policies and new attempts to resolve the problem by Americanizing the native populace.
• Dawes Severalty Act
  • The act divided up tribal lands and distributed them to heads of families. The act also granted citizenship to any Native Americans who stayed on the land for 25 years. This act destroyed traditional tribal / communal living and enforced American ideas of individual / private ownership. Furthermore, it often led to loss of reservation lands due to the fact that many natives were either inexperienced / unfamiliar with property ownership or simply powerless against the greed of white settlers.
• Homestead Act
  • People can get land titles by owning and improving land for 5 years. Intent was to give land to farmers, however in reality, it was often used by railroad companies to get cheap land to build the railroads on.
• Frederick Jackson Turner/Turner Thesis
  • Turner argues that the frontier had been important in shaping the development of America. The frontier was a social equalizer, which fostered both social and political democracy. The availability of free land offered opportunities. Turner believed that humanity would continue to progress as long as there was an availability of free land. (Turner thesis introduces fear of America following European path of class division and social conflict)

Imperialism

• Imperialism (Jingoism)
  • Seek to transcend national borders and use jingoistic and aggressive expansionist tendencies.
• Alfred T. Mahan***/Influence of Sea Power***
  • Mayhan argues that a strong navy and naval power is necessary to achieve national greatness and prosperity. This led to the expansion of navy to facilitate imperial ambitions.
• “White Man’s Burden”
  • Poem by Rudyard Kipling refers to sense of American responsibility to improve the world. This phrase was often used by imperialists / jingoists to justify imperialistic tendencies.
• Queen Lil Jon/Hawaii
  • Trade relationships with Hawaiian islands due to sugar production lead to the immigration of many American producers to the islands. These American planters became the elite, and due to the decimation of native Hawaiian populations, the planters began to import cheap Asian labor. The Americans forced the Hawaiians to adopt a constitutional government. In response, Queen Lil attempted to eliminate white control on the islands, leading to a white coup. Though the government condemned the coup, fears of Japanese control of the islands prompted McKinley to take action and annex the islands.
• Yellow Journalism
  • During Cuba’s movement for independence, Spanish suppression of the revolt often culminated in death, disease, and decimation of the Cuban population. Yellow journalism capitalized on this and used sensationalism to attract readers.
  • William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer were competing for readers at the time, thus they often employed yellow journalism as a tool for their own personal gain.
• Causes of the Spanish American War
  • USS Maine/Remember the Maine: The American ship the USS Maine docked in Havana harbor. An explosion occurred (which due to later investigation was determined to be a malfunction). Yellow journalists capitalized on the explosion, rallying Americans with the call for justice, “Remember the Maine”
  • De Lomê Letter: A letter from a Spanish diplomat regarding William McKinley. The letter insulted the president, eliciting public outrage.
  • Economic and Social Reasons: Economically, Cuba was a commercial interest of the United States, thus Americans wanted to protect their economy from Spanish intervention. Socially, revolutionary ideals reminded Americans of their own independence movement.
• Emilio Aguinaldo
  • A Filipino nationalist leader who had initially fought with the Americans in order to free the Philippines from Spanish imperial control. Later, when the Americans annexed the Philippines, he led Filipino insurgents in guerilla warfare against the imperialist American rule. The result of this clash was a brutal war of American conquest.
• Treaty of Paris of 1898
  • Ends Spanish American War. Provides for (1) Recognition of Cuban independence (2) U.S. acquisition of Puerto Rico and Guam (3) U.S. acquisition of the Philippines

Causes of Imperialism

National glory (desire to compete with Europeans -- Social Darwinian justifications)

Commerce (industrialists seek expansion of markets and new material sources)

Racial superiority (American sense of cultural superiority)

Christianity (American sense of cultural superiority)

• Foraker Act
  • Establishes a civilian government (i.e. limited popular government) on the island of Puerto Rico -- appointed governor, appointed executive assembly (upper house of legislature), elected lower house of legislature
• Insular Cases
  • The court rules that constitutional rights are not automatically extended to territorial possessions, but Congress has the right to decide whether or not such rights belonged to Congress.
• Teller Amend / Platt Amend
  • The Teller Amendment declared that the United States had no intention of taking political control of Cuba, and that once peace was restored, the Cuban people would control their own government.
  • The Platt Amendment limits Cuban self governance by stating (1) Cuba could never sign a treaty with a foreign power which impaired its independence (2) Allowance of U.S. interventionism to preserve independence and maintain law and order (3) Allow the U.S. to maintain naval bases on the island -- Guantanamo Bay
• Open Door Policy
  • Secretary of State John Hay attempts to limit spheres of influence in China and dominance of Western Powers. Threat of economic barriers in Asia due to these spheres of influence causes Jay to dispatch diplomatic note. Jay outlined his concept of an Open Door policy in which Chinese trade would be equally open to all. (Often framed as desire to preserve Chinese integrity from Western imperialism, yet there were ulterior economic motives).
• Big Stick Diplomacy
  • Roosevelt flexed on European powers in Venezuela with his army
  • Teddy Roosevelt’s policy of using military force to keep other european powers away from Latin America. Such as Cuba, Puerto Rico, etc. Henceforth called the “Big Stick” Diplomacy.
• Panama Canal
  • Hay-Pauncefote Treaty paves way for canal on narrow isthmus of Panama. Tensions with Colombia over payment for the use of Panamanian lands prompts the United States to support the Panamanian independence movement. By bypassing the Columbians and supporting Panamanian insurgents, the US was able to manufacture the Panama Canal more cheaply and more efficiently, but at the cost of good relationships with Cuba.
• Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine
  • The Monroe Doctrine prohibited European intervention, thus providing Roosevelt with the opportunity and justification for intervening in Latin America. For example, if a nation failed to pay its debts to a European power, the U.S. would intervene on behalf of this power. This paved the way for poor relations with Latin American nations in the future.

Progressive Era

• The Progressive Era

  • A response to the social ills created by Gilded Age industrialization and urbanization. Desired to limit the power of big business, achieve social justice, and improve democratic reality to match democratic ideals. Advocated a more active role of the federal government.

• Muckrakers

  • Investigative journalists who aimed to create a well-informed public and reveal the realities of politics, factories, slums, and corporations.
  • Jacob Riis/How the Other Half Lives: Descriptions of tenement life reveal the harsh conditions of slum life in the cities.
  • Lincoln Steffens/Shame of the Cities: Descriptions of politicalm bossism reveal the corruption pervading municipal government.
  • Ida Tarbell/History of Standard Oil: Descriptions of Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Company reveal the deceitful businesses tactics of industrial tycoons.

• Democracy

  • Direct primary: Nomination of candidates by the vote of all party members.
  • Initiative: If voters petition to have a measure put on a ballot, then the electorate can vote on it.
  • Referendum: Voters can directly enact laws.
  • Recall: Electorate can vote to remove corrupt / incompetent officials by public petition and vote.

• Lewis Hine/Child Labor

  • Hine’s photographic documentation of the existence of child labor in factories throughout America is part of movement calling for bans on the employment of children. Works w/ National Child Labor Committee to successfully enact laws.

• Supreme Court = Erratic in state labor law rulings.

  • Lochner v. New York: Supreme court strikes down a state law providing for 10 hr workday.
  • Muller vs. Oregon: Supreme Court upholds the 10 hr workday, but only for women.

• Triangle Shirtwaist Fire

  • Fire in high rise garment factory took almost 200 lives, mostly women. Disasters such as this prompted stricter building codes, factory inspection acts, and workers compensation.

• Prohibition

  • Anti-Saloon League: Pushed the issue of prohibition to the forefront of local, state, and federal politics. Pioneered the idea of a single issue pressure group.
  • WCTU: Advocates prohibition and closing saloons, but also endorsed other reforms such as labor reforms and suffrage.
  • 18th Amendment: Prohibitionist efforts culminated in the 18th amendment, which prohibited alcoholic beverages in the United States.

• Square Deal

  • Calls for enforcement of current antitrust laws and increased regulation of big business.` It focused on conservation, control of corporations, and consumer protection (the 3 C’s).

• TR on trust busting

  • Roosevelt was supportive of trust busting, but only for harmful trusts which harmed the public and stifled competition. He believed that regulation of big business was better than restoring small business due to the greater efficiency of big business.

• 1901 Anthracite Coal Strike

  • Coal workers go on strike leading to coal shortage, which created high coal prices. TR invites the union leaders and mine owners to DC to resolve the problem. His strong show of executive authority led to the end of the strike (though the union leaders only got some of their demands).

• \

  35. Regulatory laws
  • Elkins Act: Makes it illegal for RailRoads to give or take secret rebates to favorites.
  • Hepburn Act: Expands jurisdiction of the ICC and gives powers to make maximum RR rates.

• 36. Upton Sinclair/The Jungle

  • Upton Sinclair intended to write The Jungle to spread socialist ideas, however it ended up being more effective as a muckraking account of Chicago’s meatpacking industry.
  • Meat Inspection Act: Required federal inspection of meats bound for interstate commerce and establish sanitary standards.
  • Pure Food and Drug Act: Places restrictions on manufacturers who produce id foods and medicines and bans dangerous additives and misbranding of products.

• 37. Conservation vs. Preservation

  • Forest Reserve Act: Protects timberland from being used for economic development.
  • Newlands Reclamation Act: Designed to bring water to arid western states through irrigation systems and dams, funded by the sale of lands.
  • Ballinger-Pinchot Controversy (under Taft): Roosevelt favored his head of forestry, Pinchot. However under Taft, Ballinger opened up lands in Alaska for commercial development as an attempt to develop the west. When Pinchot called Ballinger out, Taft fired Pinchot for insubordination and Ballinger resigned.

• 38. 16th Amendment and 17th Amendment

  • 16th Amendment establishes a federal income tax
  • 17th Amendment provides for the popular election of senators

• 39. Progressive Party (Bull Moose Party)

  • Due to Taft’s credibility and his successes (conservation and trust busting), the Republicans nominated Taft, causing Roosevelt to be nominated on the Progressive Party platform. Roosevelt called for New Nationalism, stressing government activism, regulation of trusts, conservation, and limitation of state courts’ anti-Progressive rulings.
  • New Freedom is Wilson’s platform. Improved banking system, lower tariffs, breaking up monopolies to promote small business competition.

• 40. Federal Reserve

  • National banking system with 12 regional district banks supervised by a centralized Federal Reserve Board. Provided for the printing of Federal Reserve Notes. By pooling bank reserves, creates security. Elasticity of money and credit supply allows for stability. Deconcentration of NYC wealth.

• 41. Federal Trade Commission (FTC)

  • Regulatory agency to investigate and take action against unfair trade. Cornerstone of trust-busting campaign.

• 42. Clayton Antitrust Act

  • Strengthens Sherman Antitrust Act’s provision for breaking up monopolies. Exempts unions from being prosecuted as trusts. Outlaws price discrimination.

• 43. Jim Crow Laws

  • Ruling whites exercise power over black communities by imposing racial subjugation and segregation through mandation of separating races in public places.
  • Black vote becomes balance of power, leading to the disenfranchisement of blacks
  • Poll tax necessitates payment of tax prior to voting
  • Literacy tests mandates that voters must be literate (loopholes for illiterate whites)
  • Grandfather clause allows illiterates to vote if their grandfather had been able to vote on Jan 1, 1867 when blacks were still disenfranchised.

• 44. Plessy v. Ferguson

  • Supreme court rules that as long as conditions are “separate but equal”, segregation is under state jurisdiction.

• 45. Ida B. Wells

  • Faced with discrimination / segregation, turns to journalism to combat lynching and helps to form the NAACP

• 46. Booker T. Washington

  • Accommodationist policy advocates establishment of economic base before striving for social equality (African Americans must have higher education in order to “carry their weight” in society and be equal), founded Tuskegee University.

• 47. W.E.B. DuBois

  • Criticizes Washington and advocates for the education of bold leaders who would challenge discrimination and segregation. Demands an end to Jim Crow laws and disenfranchisement.

WWI

• “Dollar Diplomacy”
  • Taft’s foreign policy centered around the belief that American private financial investment in imperial interests would create greater stability while also promoting U.S. business. Dollar diplomacy (money) rather than big stick diplomacy (military)
• Causes of WWI
  • Serbian nationalist assassinated Austrian archduke and Russian military mobilization triggers series of European alliances. The Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) vs Allied Powers (England, France, Russia).
  • MANIA: militarism, alliances, nationalism, imperialism, assassination
• %%Lusitania/ Arabic Pledge/Sussex Pledge \n %%
  • America was faced with the difficulty of remaining neutral, yet continuing to trade. As the war progressed and trench warfare drained supplies on both sides, American commerce became increasingly important, creating difficulties due to intentions to stay neutral. The development of submarine warfare made this increasingly difficult. At first, British attempts to set regulations due to British naval power, however German ruthless use of U-boats and their blatant and violent disrespect for accepted naval rules and regulations angered America even more
  • 128 Americans killed when Germans sink Lusitania. Wilson’s response is strongly worded -- “strict accountability” for German continuity of disrespect for naval neutrality, reparations, abandonment of submarine warfare.
  • Despite secret German orders to not sink American ships, a German submarine sinks the Arabic → German promise to not sink liners without giving warning and ensuring the safety of all passengers, so long as the liner does not attempt escape / resistance
  • The Germans broke this pledge too, torpedoing the Sussex. When Wilson threatens to sever diplomatic ties, the Germans reiterate their pledge = Sussex Pledge
• Zimmerman Telegram
  • Germans offered alliance and financial aid to Mexico, promising to return Mexican lands taken by the United States (TX, NM, AZ). [At the same time, a revolution in Russia overthrew the czarist government, giving the United States the illusion that the Allied Powers were all fighting for democratic ideals]
• “Keep the World Safe for Democracy”
  • In Wilson’s war message, he illustrated America’s sense of heroic motivation to protect democratic ideals.
• Liberty Loans/Liberty Bonds
  • While the US contributed military force, their economic contributions were fundamental to the Allied cause. Under the Liberty Loan Act, the U.S. added 5 million dollars to the national debt in the form of liberty bonds. 3 million of these bonds could be lent to Allied powers.
• Selective Service Act
  • Wilson implements a draft, calling on all men from 21-30 (later changed to 18-45)
• Food Administration/Hoover
  • Hoover seeks to raise agricultural production and limit consumption through conservation of resources. Hoover limited what Americans on the homefront could eat in order to provide more food to Americans overseas.
• War Industries Board/Bernard Baruch
  • Baruch sets priorities and issues production quotas to industries based on the US and Allied needs. Centralized control over manufacturing creates efficiency
• Great Migration
  • Due to the increase in manufacturing and industry and the draft, there was a necessity for more industrial workers. This prompted a migration among African Americans to Northern cities. There was distinct social and political change, and often these migrations were met with racial violence due to the influx of black populations in white communities.
• 19th Amendment
  • Women also contributed to the war effort, filling many industrial jobs vacated by men and helping to increase efficiency in terms of nutrition. The integral role of women imperprompted support for women’s suffrage. Though women reverted to their previous roles in the domestic sphere or in non-industrial roles, the passage of the 19th Amendment as a direct result of their war efforts was significant.
• Committee on Public Information (Creel Com)
  • The Committee on Public Information was run by George Creel. The goal of the committee was to mobilize the home front through propaganda. Pamphlets, posters, cinema were all used to influence public opinion and raise morale.
• Espionage and Sedition Acts
  • Suppression of criticisms of government leaders and policies. Penalties for inciting insubordination, disloyalty, interference w/ war effort, statements / writings which are disloyal → Targets socialists / radicals / anti-drafters / pacifists who oppose the war.
• Schenck v. United States
  • The Supreme Court upholds the Espionage and Sedition Acts in this ruling. A man circulated anti-draft leaflets, was convicted. The ruling stated that Constitutional rights like free speech and free press could be limited if there was “clear and present danger”
• Fourteen Points
  • Recognition of freedom of seas
  • Open diplomacy / End to the practice of making secret treaties
  • Removal of trade barriers, reduction of national armaments
  • Self determination for the various nationalities
  • The creation of a League of Nations = Wilson’s vision for peace w/ assembly and special council of great powers.
  • 14 Points were promised to be the basis for peace talks
• Treaty of Versailles
  • Wilson breaks precedent and travels to Paris for peace talks. The treaty demilitarized the Rhineland, reorganized Europe more nearly along ethnic boundaries, and placed blame solely on the Germans (creating bitterness which would eventually culminate in a second world war). While overseas, he loses touch with domestic policy and upon return he faces an opposition Congress due to Republican majorities in both houses. His idealist vision of a League of Nations and the potential for US involvement in European affairs created large opposition in America.
  • Henry Cabot Lodge led this opposition. “Reservationists” had serious reservations about the treaty, mainly Article X (the article including the League covenant). These reservationists desired a revival of US isolationism after the violence of the war. Ultimately, Congress opposed the treaty, and ended up not signing it. America made their peace with Germany separately and never joined the League of Nations.

Unit 8

Culture in the 20s

• Red Summer
  • In the context of the Great Migration, whites resented new competition with blacks for jobs and housing → race related tension → violence → Chicago Race Riot, one of the worst of the plethora of race riots nationwide which targeted the African Americans
• Red Scare
  • The anti-German hysteria of WWI → anti-Communist hysteria due to Bolshevik Revolution in Russia and fears of similar threats to democracy within America.
• A. Mitchell Palmer/Palmer Raids
  • Series of mysterious bombings → establishment of organization to gather information on radicals → raids, arrests, deportation of accused radicals (often foreign born due to nativist sentiment)
• Sacco and Vanzetti case
  • Italian immigrants charged with robbery / murder. Convicted despite lack of concrete evidence -- many believed they had been framed for their anarchism and ethnicity. Reflects prominent nativist sentiment which associated radicalism with foreign born Americans.
• Emergency Immigration Act/National Origins Act
  • Emergency Immigration Act establishes limitations on immigration by mandating that only 3% of foreign born persons based off of census records could immigrate in a given year. Later, the National Origins Act decreased this percentage to 2% of foreign born populations from an earlier census record, meaning that these restrictions favored old immigrants from North and West Europe. Establishes a continuity of nativism and prejudice directed towards immigrants from South and East Europe.
• 100% Americanism
  • After WWI, immigration increased dramatically, reigniting nativism=. Nativism stemmed from competition over jobs and isolationist sentiment which rejected anything un American and feared revolution (due to Bolshevik Revolution in Russia)
• Rebirth of the KKK
  • The new KKK was not limited to the South and did not simply target African Americans. The rebirth of the KKK entailed regional expansion of the groups influence, as well as expansion of the group’s target. The KKK targeted anything that was remotely un American and advocated 100% American (essentially, the group victimized anyone who was not a white, native born, Protestant American). The KKK attacked blacks, Catholics, Jews, foreigners, and Communists.
• Fundamentalism and the Scopes Trial
  • Fundamentalism was a hostile response to modernism and a rejection of anything which deviated from traditional values. Many Christians struggled to resolve evolutionary thinking with their religion, thus many Fundamentalists such as William Jennings Bryan advocated laws which prohibited the teaching of evolution in schools. When a teacher went against these laws, a trial ensued with ACLU’s Clarence Darrow defending evolutionary teaching and Bryan using biblical knowledge to defend his Fundamentalist viewpoint. Though Scopes was convicted, the case represents the classic debate between modernists and fundamentalists, urban and rural.
• Effects of Prohibition (18th Amendment)
  • Speakeasies were bars where bootlegged or smuggled liquor was sold.
  • There was also a rise in organized crime as gangsters like Al Capone fought for control for the lucrative bootlegging trade. While the intention of the 18th Amendment was noble, it was unsuccessful in changing social norms and discouraging Americans from drinking.
• Rural vs. Urban
  • Rural and urban folk were often at odds with one another due to differing morals. Rural Americans were traditionalists and fundamentalists, whereas urban dwellers were modernists who were creating a xy through cultural experiments. This shift from rural to urban, from fundamentalism / conservatism / traditionalism to new morality modernism helps explain social change during this period.
• Jazz Age
  • Jazz became a symbol of the new morality and a youthful rebellion against older more traditional values. Embodies a newfound willingness to engage in discussions of sexuality and recreation.
• The New Morality and the Flapper
  • Spread of birth control and discussion of topics encourages the rise of a new morality. Women began to defy feminine standards / Victorian expectation through fashion by wearing flapper dresses.
• Margaret Sanger
  • The struggle of providing for families in a growing urban industrial landscape in addition to a growing rejection of old morals led to Margaret Sanger’s advocacy for birth control through the American Birth Control League (later Planned Parenthood).
• 19th Amendment
  • Gives women the right to vote
• Alice Paul and Carrie Chapman Catt
  • Alice Paul and Carrie Chapman Catt led NAWSA in advocating for suffrage for women. They often used aggressive means such as picketing, chaining themselves to objects, and hunger strikes. However, their work paid off when the 19th Amendment was passed.
  • For Alice Paul, this amendment was insufficient. She continued to advocate for an Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) which would stipulate that no civil rights could be denied based on one's sex. It was never passed.
• Role of women in the workforce
  • Despite the presence of women in the urban industrial workforce during WWI, after the war they reverted to domestic jobs. Job opportunities for women were severely limited.
• “The New Negro”
  • Term implying a more outspoken advocacy against Jim Crow segregation. Shift toward more separatist moods amongst African Americans as they formed independent communities within urban areas which would become hotbeds for cultural development.
• Harlem Renaissance/Langston Hughes
  • The Harlem Renaissance was a period of cultural development that occurred as African American artists began to develop a new and distinctly unique culture that established a sense of separation from the American collective. Langston Hughes wrote about and supported the Harlem Renaissance and described the beauty of the African American community.
• Marcus Garvey
  • Garvey advocated black nationalism, black separatism, and economic self sufficiency. He also promoted the African American return to Africa.
• The Lost Generation
  • Expressed sense of disillusionment with ideals of earlier generation and with materialism of postwar Roaring 20s, mostly by ppl who had fought in WWI
  • Sinclair Lewis: Lewis’ literature criticized small town insular mindsets of small towns in America (e.g. rejection of science)
  • F. Scott Fitzgerald]: Captured society of jazz age, including the disparities between the excessive wealth and extreme poverty. Rose to fame and affluence, but then declined during the Great Depression

Economy in the 20s

• Consumer Culture of the 1920s
  • Advertising and Buying on Installments: Advertising portrayed spending (rather than thrift) as a virtue. Buying on installments democratized consumerism by allowing payments for consumer goods to be made chunk by chunk (in installments). This way, 7 people could pay for goods over time, allowing lower income Americans to take part in consumerism.
  • Growth of Radio and Movies: Movies become foremost entertainment form, however they also evolved into a form of social commentary. For example, Birth of a Nation aroused African American opposition due to its glorification of the KKK and portrayal of blacks as corrupt politicians and rapists. The rise of radio allowed for better communication of news and increased sense of connectivity between the people and government.
• Henry Ford and the Automobile
  • The automobile becomes democratized due to lower costs as a result of efficient mass production. The automobile industry also catalyzes the development of other industries such as the oil, rubber, glass industries.
• The role of farmers and unions in 1920s
  • The collapse of post war commodity prices led to an agricultural depression. Increased productivity due to technological advancements lead to surpluses, which create decreased prices. Labor unions faced setbacks due to fears of radicalism and openshop discrimination against unions.
  • Yellow dog contracts: Force workers to agree to stay out of unions
  • Open Shop: Policy adopted by employers where they can hire union or non-union workers
• “Return to Normalcy”
  • Harding’s campaign pledge = promise of postwar conservatism
• Andrew Mellon Economic Policy
  • Reduction of debt through efficiency, decreased spending, and strict management. Reduced taxes increase disposable income of wealthy Americans → speculative excess.
• Hawley-Smoot Tariff
  • The Hawley Smoot Tariff increases tariffs to unprecedented rates, making it impossible for European nations to repay war reparations because without American trade, they did not possess the capital to pay America back for WWI loans. The tariff hurt international trade exacerbating worldwide depression.
• Causes of the Great Depression
  • Easy Credit/Installment Buying: Allows buyers to buy things they don’t have money for → Corporate illusion of prosperity → Increased production. In reality, consumers are in debt due to easy credit and installments, but they aren’t concerned because advertising has made spending a virtue.
  • %%Buying stock on margin/stock speculation: Buying on a margin allowed people to make a small down payment and borrow the rest of the cost of the stock from a broker. This practice depended on the price of the stock increasing which would allow the investor to repay the loan they had taken out to buy the stock. When prices dropped, the market collapsed. \n %%
  • Overproduction – business and farm: Installment buying had increased consumerism, giving the illusion of prosperity, prompting businesses to increase production. However, wages were stagnant, and thus workers could not continue to purchase these consumer goods, leading to decline in business prosperity. For farmers, they had maintained wartime levels of production in the postwar period, leading to overproduction, decline in prices, and farm depression.
  • Unequal distribution of wealth: This meant that most people could not purchase goods that were being produced without buying on a margin, leading to an economy built on an increasingly fragile foundation.
• Hoover’s Belief in the Economy = rugged individualist
  • Hoover believed that government interference should be minimal and that the economy could cure itself without excessive government influence.
  • However he shifted to believe that some government action was necessary, though he believed such action was the prerogative of state / local governments.
• Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC)
  • Emergency loans to prop up key businesses (railroads, banks, life insurance, financial institutions). Hoover believed that these benefits would trickle down to smaller businesses and bring economic recovery.
• Hoover Dam
  • Emergency Relief Act gave the RFC money for relief loans and authorized loans for public works. The Hoover Dam was constructed with such loans.
• Bonus March
  • Unemployed veterans march to DC to demand payment of WWI bonus. Strong show of government power when military is ordered to break up the encampment of veterans in the capital.

Economy in the 30s

The New Deal and the 3 R’s

• Relief = Short term solution — Shift from trickle down economics to Keynesian economics.
  • Civilian Conservation Corps: Employs men to work on projects which benefit the public and the environment.
  • Works Progress Administration: Employs people, often to do artistic jobs such as writing, arts, etc.
  • Civil Works Admin: Puts workers directly on federal payroll for competitive jobs, providing jobs to unemployed rather than doling out cash.
  • Federal Emergency Relief Administration: Federal money goes to states as grants to address human distr
  • Ineffective: These jobs were short term solutions because they were not permanent jobs and had exorbitant costs for the government. (25%→12%) There was still a great degree of unemployment.
  • Effective: In creating jobs, the government created income, stimulating the economy by encouraging consumerism. These jobs provided both immediate relief and long term infrastructure.
• Recovery = Long term solution
  • Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA): Encourages farmers to reduce production (which would result in increased prices). Plow under program encourages farmers to destroy their crops in order to minimize production. Declared unconstitutional in Butler vs US due to a processing tax.
  • National Recovery Administration (NRA): Under National Industrial Recovery Act, sets industry wide codes created by employers and union officials mandating certain working conditions and hours. The codes often encouraged more part-time workers than full time workers and discouraged child labor in order to decrease unemployment. Declared unconstitutional in Schechter vs US due to interference with intrastate commerce.
  • Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC): Established to prevent foreclosures
  • Ineffective: Failed to end the Great Depression, and most were declared unconstitutional
• Reform = Ensure that this never happens again
  • Social Security Act (SSA): Ese
  • Federal Securities Act (Securities Exchange Commision): FSA requires full disclosure of information about stocks and bonds through regulation with the SEC which was created to regulate the chaotic stock and bond markets. Essentially ensures transparency.
• Emergency Banking Relief Act
  • Creates bank holiday and permits only sound / stable banks to reopen.
• Fireside Chats
  • Roosevelt’s radio broadcasts, intended to encourage and reassure citizens → citizens deposit money in the bank → end of bank crisis.
• 21st Amendment
  • Repeals Volstead Act / 18th Amendment → end of Prohibition
• Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)
  • Creates jobs developing electricity in nation’s poorest region. Not only promotes cheaper electricity, but also diminishes unemployment.
• Indian Reorganization Act
  • Attempt to counter the effects of Dawes Severalty Act — Aims to reestablish tribal bonds and cultural traditions → Only a partial improvement.
• Opposition to FDR’s New Deal
  • Huey P. Long/Share-the- Wealth Program
  • Long advocated confiscation of large fortunes and division of this excess wealth amongst Americans living in severe poverty.
  • Francis Townsend/Old Age Pensions
  • Advocates establishment of monthly payments to retired citizen to provide financial security and economic growth (→ citizens are able to buy goods, stimulating the economy)
  • Father Coughlin
  • Anti Semitic radio priest who promotes coinage of silver to increase money supply
• Wagner Act
  • Gives workers bargaining rights through unions and prohibits employers from interfering with union.
• New Deal Coalition
  • Democratic party unites a variety of elements — Ethnic groups, middle class voters, intellectuals, labor unions, African Americans
• Court Packing Plan
  • FDR faces difficulties with conservative judicial branch. Attempts to resolve by packing the court. I.e. he attempted to pass legislation that increased the number of supreme court justices, which would allow him to nominate a number of more liberal justices and continue with New Deal legislation unhindered. This led to criticisms of FDR as dictatorial and despotic. Though the bill never passed, the mood of the justices did and they were more supportive of the New Deal in several cases.
• John L. Lewis/CIO
  • John L Lewis’s Congress of Industrial Organizations broke away from AFL. Whereas AFL supported organization of unions according to skills and trades, CIO supported organizing unions according to industries. Successful in bargaining through sit down strikes.
• 1937 Recession (“double dip”)
  • Caused by decrease in disposable income (as a result of the SSA), as well as cutback in federal relief programs.
• Keynesian Economics
  • Belief that during times of economic recession, government spending should increase so as to stimulate the economy. During times of economic prosperity, government spending should decrease.

Foreign Policy in the 20s and 30s

• Washington Naval Conference
  • Advocates end to arms race and permanent world peace. Treaties establish tonnage limits, moratorium on battleship building, respect of Pacific possessions, Open Door policy / Chinese integrity
• Kellogg-Briand Pact
  • Signatories of this pact agree not to go to war with one another, reserving their right to self defense. Essentially did nothing, yet represents desires of nations to eliminate war and perpetuate peace in the context of post WWI isolationism.
• Good Neighbor Policy
  • Withdrawal of troops from Nicaragua and Haiti, repeal of Platt Amendment, rescindment of Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine —US does not have right to intervene in Latin America. Pan American conferences encourage hemispheric relations, stating that the American nations will unite for mutual safety.
• Invasion of Manchuria/Stimson Doctrine
  • Japanese invade Manchuria, establishing a puppet empire of Manchukuo. This was a clear violation of the League of Nations Charter, the Open Door Policy, and other treaties from the Washington Naval Conference. In response to these blatant aggressions, the US issued the Stimson Doctrine, stating a refusal to recognize any agreement or situation which violated treaty rights, prior agreements, or the territorial integrity of China.
• Hitler and Mussolini
  • Hitler’s regime in Germany was based on scapegoating Jews for the post war state of Germany. Mussolini’s regime was a fascist regime based on aggressive militarism and nationalism.
• Munich Conference/Appeasement
  • Despite Mussolini’s invasion of Ethiopia, German troop movements into the Rhineland (which violated the Treaty of Versailles’ Rhineland de-militarization stipulation), the situation in Manchuria, and German invasion of the Sudetenland (Czechoslovakia), Britain and France pursued policies of appeasement. At the Munich Conference, British and French leaders agreed to allow Hitler to take the Sudetenland unopposed.
• Nye Committee
  • Investigates reasons for entering WWI — greed of bankers and arms manufacturers. Creates basis for strong isolationist sentiment because it evaluates the faults with reasoning for previous entry into world war.
• Cash and Carry Policy
  • This policy provided that a belligerent could only buy US arms if it used its own ships for transportation and paid cash. Strongly favors Britain due to strong navy and ensures that issues with naval neutrality and commerce do not reoccur
• Panay Incident
  • The Japanese bombed a US ship. US pursued policy of appeasement, accepting Japanese apology with no reservations.
• Fall of France and the Battle of Britain
  • Germans overwhelm the Maginot line, invading France and making Britain the only major democratic nation free of dictatorial control.
  • Battle of Britain: mainly air battle between Royal Air Force and Luftwaffe, in preparation for a sea invasion of Britain that never materialized
• Destroyer Base Deal
  • US exchanges to trade old destroyer ships for the right to build military bases on British islands in the Caribbean.
• Peacetime Conscription
  • Provides for the registration of all American men, enacting a law for compulsory military service. First time there is a military draft during peacetime.
• Lend-Lease Program (“Arsenal of Democracy”)
  • Roosevelt proposed permitting Britain to obtain all of the arms it needed on credit. He justified this with the necessity of protecting Britain and democracy throughout the world. By providing Britain with arms, he put stake in Allied victory and thus supported the survival of democratic ideals
• Pearl Harbor
  • Irreconcilable issues between Japan and US. Japan needs US oil, yet refuses to respect Chinese integrity and Open Door policy → failure of negotiation attempts and an attack on Pearl Harbor, killing 2,000 Americans.

WWII

• War Productions Board
  • Established to manage war industries and convert industrial manufacturing to war production. Sets production goals to insure both superiority in quality and quantity of Allied equipment.
• War Bonds (other ways of financing the war)
  • Though Roosevelt preferred taxes to borrowing (and passed a Revenue Act which made everyone a taxpayer), taxes only covered half of the war cost. Citizens often invested in the war by buying war bonds. The United States’ debt was 6 times as high after the war as before.
• Role of women in the war (“Rosie the Riveter”)
  • As men enlist, a labor shortage in defense industries prompted the entry of women into the workforce. Rosie the Riveter was the poster child / covergirl for the campaign to attract women to industrial jobs. Many older, married women entered the workforce which was significant, but also prompted much opposition from those who believed the role of women was in the household.
• A. Philip Randolph/FEPC
  • During the war, blacks serving in the military faced segregation. In defense industries, there was much employment discrimination and oftentimes African Americans were denied jobs. Randolph planned a march to DC in order to protest racial discrimination within the workplace. In response, the government created the Fair Employment Practices Committee, which prohibited employment related discrimination and assisted minorities in gaining jobs in defense industries. The committee had no power to enforce its directives however, making it weak.
• Bracero Program/Zoot Suit Riots
  • Enlistment also led to a shortage of workers in agricultural industries, prompting a program in which Mexican farmworkers could bypass American immigration procedures in order to fill the labor shortage. However, the increase in Mexican immigrants in California led to racial tensions and culminated in violence when the zoot suit riots erupted. During these riots, white civilians and servicemen attacked not only Mexican Americans, but also Filipinos and African Americans.
• Native American Code Talkers
  • Native Americans served in the armed forces and defense industries. Unique role as messengers; used Navajo language to encode and decipher messages that enemies could not understand.
• Japanese Internment/Executive Order 9066
  • Following the attacks on Pearl Harbor, racial prejudice and fear were dominant in California, leading to the victimization of Japanese Americans. When FDR issued Executive Order 9066, Japanese Americans were removed from their homes (often in California) to internment camps in the interior.
• Hirabayashi vs. US
  • Refusal to comply with curfews imposed on Japanese Americans → Supreme Court rules that curfews against minorities are constitutional when the nation is at war.
• Korematsu vs. US
  • Supreme Court upholds constitutionality of Executive Order 9066. This authorized the government to deny Japanese Americans their constitutional rights due to military concerns and fear of espionage.
• Allied Strategy in the War
  • Focus on European theater first (although much of American attention was focused on the Pacific theater where they were at war with Japan).
  • Nations at war w/ Axis sign the Declaration of United Nations, committing their full resources to the war and promising not to make separate peace with any of the powers.
  • Supreme Allied commander in each theater — subject to British American combined Chiefs of Staff
• D-Day
  • Allied drive to liberate France from Nazi control was an enormous amphibious invasion of Normandy.
  • Despite severe casualties, D-Day was turning point in the war and a pivotal point in America’s rise as a global power.
  • British-American forces continued east, prompting some Germans to believe it was the end of the war.
• Yalta Conference
  • Discussion of what the postwar world would look like
  • Occupation zones in Germany
  • Free elections in the liberated countries of Eastern Europe
  • Soviets would enter the war against Japan
  • New world peace organization (the United Nations)
  • Soviet promises to respect Manchurian sovereignty
• The Atomic Bomb Debate
  • Truman believed in using the A-bomb as an expedient to make the war end faster. Furthermore, the use of the A-bomb would allow Truman to avoid a costly amphibious invasion of Japan. He and the Allies called on Japan to surrender unconditionally or face utter destruction. When Japan didn’t surrender, Truman dropped two atomic bombs in the Japanese cities Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The human toll was around a quarter million Japanese.

Unit 9

The Late 40s - Policy

1. Baby Boom: Post war increase in reproduction produces an abnormally large generation. The baby boom generation shapes society as they grow. For example, during the 1950s when they are young, there is a move for the women to return to domesticity in response to the necessity of the large group of children.

2. GI Bill of Rights: Provides support to veterans in their transition to peacetime, by providing them with educational opportunities and loans to buy houses/farms and to to start businesses. This cushions the impacts of postwar mobilization by promoting a well educated workforce.

3. Taft Hartley Act: (Passes over Truman's veto) Outlaws closed shop, permits states to outlaw Union shop. Overall, this bill severely limited unions in order to promote the growth of business.

4. The United Nations: International peacekeeping organization. Security Council is given responsibility of maintaining international security and authorizing peacekeeping missions.

5. The Cold War: The Soviet Union fails to comply with the agreements of the Yalta Conference when it establishes Communist satellites in liberated Eastern Europe. Furthermore, the ideological struggle between Soviet Communism and American Capitalism were irreconcilable and made conflict inevitable.

6. “The Iron Curtain”: The iron curtain is a metaphorical symbol of the separation between East and West, the Soviet Union and the US, Communism and Capitalism.

7. Containment/George Kennan: George Kennan advocates a policy of containment. Soviet insecurity prompted unceasing expansive tendencies. Thus, the US policy was to contain Soviet expansion and limit the Communist threat. This policy led to U.S interventionism.

8. The Truman Doctrine: The threat of Communism in Turkey and Greece prompted Truman to outline the Truman Doctrine. This policy called for $400 million in aid to the free people of Turkey and Greece. This set a precedent for future interventionism (both military and economic) to contain communism.

9. The Marshall Plan: European economic depression gives rise to the development of Communist parties in Western Europe. Truman seeks to counteract this by sending $12 billion in aid to Western Europe.

10. Berlin Airlift: Soviets attempted to eliminate Western influence from Berlin by cutting off access to the city. In response, Truman decided to use air forces to lift supplies to the city.

11. NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization - A military alliance for defending all members from outside attack.

12. Fair Employment Practices Committee: prohibited employment related discrimination and assisted minorities in gaining jobs in defense industries. The committee had no power to enforce its directives however, making it weak.

13. The Fair Deal: National health care insurance, federal aid to education, civil rights legislation, public housing, new farm program.

14. Dixiecrat Party/Strom Thurmond: In response to Truman’s support for civil rights legislation, the Southern democrats walked out of the convention and nominated their own candidate, Thurmond, on a state’s rights platform which denounced civil rights initiatives.

15. Korean War: After the North Korean Communists crossed the 38 parallel into South Korea, Truman broke tradition and waged war through the United Nations rather than unilaterally. This allowed him to use U.S. troops without a formal war declaration from Congress - Sets a dangerous precedent.

    • The effect of “losing China”: Truman and other policymakers were blamed for having “lost China” to the Communists. Thus, they were determined to stop the Communists from gaining a hold in South Korea so as to ensure that they weren’t blamed for “losing Korea” too.

16. Pusan and Inchon: At Pusan in the Southeast and Inchon in the North, the UN forces attacked simultaneously, successfully forcing the North Koreans back over the 38 parallel. The Chinese joined the fight, and General MacArthur wanted to wage war on the Chinese by dropping 34 atomic bombs on them. Truman fired MacArthur, and gave up on the goal of reunifying Korea, settling for a reestablishment of the truce line at the 38 parallel.

17. HUAC and McCarthyism: During the Cold War, anti-Communist hysteria swept the U.S. The House un-American Activities Committee / McCarthy accused Communists of having infiltrated the state department.

    • Alger Hiss: A former State Department worker was accused by former Soviet spy, Whittaker Chambers of leading a Soviet spy ring and leaking secret government documents.
    • The Rosenbergs: The Rosenbergs were convicted for participating in Soviet-American spy ring and leaking secret atomic secrets to the Soviet Union. They were sentenced to death.

18. Smith and McCarran Act: The Smith Act outlawed any conspiracy to overthrow the government. The McCarran Act made it unlawful to conspire to substantially contribute towards a totalitarian dictatorship or government overthrow.

The 50s - Policy

1. Dynamic Conservatism: Eisenhower’s policies of fiscal conservatism, social liberalism. Eisenhower strove to curb federal spending while extending SSA and seeking to improve civil rights.

2. Eisenhower’s Foreign Policy

   • Deterrence: Eisenhower’s Foreign policy was based on the expectation that a strong nuclear and conventional military would deter other nations from acts of aggression.
   • Massive Retaliation: Furthermore, Eisenhower’s policies promised that if a foreign power attacked the U.S, they would respond with a huge counterattack. Many people viewed this as a policy for mutual extinction.
   • “New Look”: The U.S. began to develop nuclear power as an expedient to this foreign policy. By developing such nuclear power, they would be able to deter attack by using the threat of massive nuclear retaliation.
   • Brinkmanship: The belief that the United States pushed Communist powers to the brink of war, they would back down due to the New Look, and deterrent threat of massive nuclear retaliation.

3. Background to Vietnam: After WWII, the French attempted to re establish their imperial power on Indochina. This gave rise to a Communist group in the North led by Ho Chi Minh. The anti colonial war became a war of communism against capitalism. Eventually, Indochina won its independence and Vietnam was temporarily divided along the 17 parallel until an election would be held to unite the country. This led to a division between Communist North and a South ruled by an inept Ngo Dinh Diem. As Northern Communist guerilla warfare heightened,

4. Sputnik: The Soviets launched the satellite Sputnik. This revealed the missile gap between the Soviet Union and the U.S.

5. NASA: The U.S. developed a space exploration program in order to compete with the Soviets for satellite power.

6. National Defense Education Act: This authorized giving hundreds of millions of dollars in federal money to schools for math, science,and foreign language education.

7. Eisenhower Doctrine: The United States pledged economic and military aid to any Middle Eastern country threatened by Communism.

8. The U2 Summit: The Soviet Union and the U.S. agreed to a meeting in Paris after disagreements in Berlin. This represented a shift toward good spirits. However the good relationships were never fulfilled. When the U.S.S.R shot down US surveillance planes, this put a damper on the talks, as Khrushchev walked out on the talks, ending the temporary thaw on the Cold War.

9. Fidel Castro and Cuba: Fidel Castro overthrew the Cuban dictator, making the island a Communist country. After Castro nationalized American owned businesses and properties on Cuba, Eisenhower retaliated by embargoing Cuba trade. Thus, the Cubans turned to the Soviets for support. This meant that there was a Communist threat 90 miles from Florida.

10. Military Industrial Complex: In his farewell address, Eisenhower warned against a military industrial complex. In essence, he advised Americans to prevent the military from wielding disproportionate influence on American economy, society, and politics.

The 50s - Society

1. Post WWII Consumerism: During the war, there had been few consumer goods due to wartime shortages. As consumer goods became available to Americans, there was a rise in consumerism. Furthermore, the development of television as a form of mass media allowed for greater advertising of consumer goods.
2. Growth of the Suburbs: There was a mass migration to the suburbs after the war.
3. Role of the Federal Highway Act: The federal highway act provided for the construction of hundreds of thousands of miles of highways. Better transportation allowed suburbia to stay connected to the cities, which was especially helpful for working Americans who were increasingly commuting from home in the suburbs to work in the city via car.
4. Levittowns: These were an example of both suburbia and conformity. They were mass produced, which kept the prices low, but also made everything look identical, which went with the conformist trend of the 50s.
5. Federal Housing Administration: The government insured loans for suburban development like Levittowns. This prompted construction.
6. “White Flight” and “Redlining”: Suburbia was a white phenomenon. As blacks engaged in a second Great Migration from the rural south to the urban north, whites engaged in “white flight” migration to the suburbs. To ensure unofficial segregation in urban areas, companies drew red lines around the areas where blacks couldn't live. If an African American applied for a loan or mortgage to buy property in that neighborhood, they would be denied due to the practice of redlining.
7. 1950s a decade of conformity?
8. The 50’s Housewife: While women had moved into the workplace during WWII, there was a call for a return to domesticity after the war. As the baby boom generation was conceived and born, and the U.S. faced an ideological struggle with Communism abroad, there was a belief that women should stay at home to both raise the children and serve as a source of moral fiber to encourage democratic ideals in the next generation. This engendered a return to the cult of feminine domesticity.
9. The Sunbelt: Warmer climate, lower taxes, and economic opportunity attracted many Americans to the states from Florida to California. Military spending during the Cold War facilitated the shifting of influence, as the Sun Belt gained both industrial development and a newfound political influence.
   10. The Beatniks (“Beats”): The Beatniks advocated spontaneity, use of drugs, and rebellion against societal standards--especially conformity.
   11. Jack Kerouac (On the Road): Kerouac wrote a book chronicling his abandonment of the intellectualism of New York City to find freedom and seek enlightenment through experience on the road.
   12. Allen Ginsberg: Wrote about false hopes and broken promises. Use of obscenity in literature is viewed unfavorably by U.S. Government.
   13. Growth of Rock and Roll/Elvis: Elvis Presley was a rock and roll start. His performances (especially hips) hinted at sexual undertones, which shocked more conservative Americans. As youth reveled in rock and roll music, their parents believed Elvis was an embodiment of sin. This difference between conservative older generation and the rebelliousness of the youth during this time would give way to a youth rebellion and counterculture in the 70s.

The 60s - Policy and Society

1. Brown vs. Board of Education: This ruling establishes that the segregation of black children in public schools is unconstitutional because it violates the 14th Amendment’s equal protection of the law.

2. Little Rock 9: In response to the Brown v Board ruling, Southern blacks resisted desegregation of schools. In Arkansas, the state governor called in the state's National Guard to prevent integration efforts -- as it had been ordered to by a federal court. President Eisenhower intervened, using federal troops to protect the 9 students at Little Rock High School.

3. Rosa Parks/Montgomery Bus Boycott: When Rosa Parks, a black woman, was forced to give up her seat on the bus according to segregation laws. When she refused to comply, she was arrested leading to the Montgomery Bus Boycott, in which Southern blacks refused to ride the buses in protest of segregation. This aligned many future civil rights leaders, bringing Martin Luther King Jr to the forefront of the movement.

4. MLK Jr. / SCLC: To keep the spirit of the civil rights movement alive, Martin Luther King started the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, which served as an organizational force for ministers and churches. The SCLC advocated nonviolent protest. One of the ways they did this was through the sit in movement. During the Greensboro Sit In, college students sat at a segregated lunch counter in protest of segregation laws. By deliberately inviting arrest and performing acts of civil disobedience, blacks called attention to racial injustice, segregation, and discrimination in the South.

5. The New Frontier (JFK): Kennedy called for federal aid to education, health care, urban renewal, and civil rights. While few of JFK's aspirations became legislation, many of his intentions were passed on to his successor, Johnson.

6. Election of 1960: This election was symbolic in its transfer of power from conservative Republicans to liberal Democrats. Republican Nixon faced off with Democrat Kennedy, in a campaign that was largely influenced by the newfound role of TVs / debates. In the televised debates, Kennedy appeared more poised, young, and confident than the nervous looking Nixon.

   1. Peace Corps: The program created a group of volunteers for international humanitarian efforts, especially the use of labor force to develop infrastructure.
   2. Warren Court: Rulings under the Warren Court profoundly impacted the criminal justice system. Under his tenure as Supreme Court justice, he shifted the focus from property rights to individual rights.
   3. Gideon v. Wainwright: This required that state courts provided legal counsel for indigent Americans who could not afford defense attorneys.
   4. Miranda v. Arizona: Police must inform an arrested person of their right to remain silent. (Miranda rights)
   5. Escobedo v. Illinois: Arrested persons have the right to have legal counsel present while they're being questioned by the police.
   6. SNCC, SCLC, CORE: These were all groups that were integral in the Civil Rights movement. SNCC was the student nonviolent coordinating committee, which included students and young people in the movement. SCLC was the southern Christian leadership convention, which was led by MLK, who is often viewed as the champion of the civil rights movement. CORE was the congress of racial equality, which advocated nonviolence and was the founder of the Double V Campaign. The goals of the groups was to achieve racial equality and integration, due to the codified segregation in the South. The tactics of these organizations were nonviolent civil disobedience.
   7. “Freedom Riders”: In protest of segregation of the bus systems in the South, black freedom riders defied segregation ordinances by riding buses forbidden to them. They were met with violence and hostility. For example, white mobs set fire to one of the buses. With the rise of mass media, publicization of such events prompted both political victories, as well as victories in the juxtaposition of the actions of peaceful black protesters and angry white mobs.
   8. JFK’s role: JFK supported civil rights however since the election had been so narrow, he did not force the issue in fear of alienating white voters. However, he exercised federal power by forcing racist state governors to comply with federal court rulings mandating segregation. Furthermore, JFK’s younger brother, attorney general Robert Kennedy was active in pursuing a civil rights agenda and ensuring compliance with federal rulings.
   9. March on Washington: King led nearly 200,000 blacks and whites in a March to Washington. Their goal was a bill protecting civil rights. King’s “I have a Dream” Speech called for an end to racial prejudice and greater harmony between blacks and whites.

7. Bay of Pigs Invasion: CIA trained Cuban rebels attempted an overthrow of the Communist government of Fidel Castro. Their efforts failed, which made the US look bad and made the Soviets and Cubans suspicious.

8. Berlin Wall: Khrushchev attempted to bully young JFK into removing US troops from Berlin. Kennedy refused, and in response, a wall was built around West Berlin to quarantine the outpost of Capitalism in solid Communist Eastern Europe. Kennedy called up the armed forces, and there was a face off as the wall was being built, however neither Kennedy nor Khrushchev made a move.

9. Cuban Missile Crisis: U.S. surveillance discovered Soviet missiles in Cuba, which posed a real threat to the United States since they were only 90 miles away. JFK resolved the crisis by quarantining the island. Essentially, it meant that the U.S. established a naval blockade without directly declaring war on Cuba. After a period of tension, the Soviets agreed to remove the missiles. This began a thaw to the Cold War, as the U.S. and Soviet Union engaged in a trade of surplus U.S. wheat. Furthermore, a “hot line” telephone line was established between Moscow and Washington, which symboled greater communication and lesser tensions between the two world powers.

10. JFK’s role in Vietnam: JFK continued military aid to South Vietnamese forces. Many Americans served in Vietnam in support roles - not combat. They helped train and supply South Vietnam’s armed forces. However, the South Vietnamese ruler Ngo Dinh Diem was unpopular, thus the U.S. began to support him less and less. Eventually he was killed.

11. Civil Rights Act (1964): This made segregation illegal in all public facilities. Furthermore, it supplemented federal powexr to enforce school integration.

12. Michael Harrington’s The Other America: This book revealed that 40 million Americans were living below the poverty line. This prompted Johnson’s declaration of a War on Poverty, and the development of an expansion of welfare under the Great Society.

13. The Great Society: This was Johnson’s liberal domestic agenda, which expanded welfare.

    • Job Corps: This was a program intended to employ young Americans by providing them with vocational education and training.
    • Head start: Head start was a program which provided early education to indigent American children.
    • Medicare and Medicaid: Medicare provides health ins millennial 'll
    • insurance for seniors / Americans 65 and older. Medicaid provides funds with which states can provide medical care to indigent and disabled Americans.
    • Housing and Urban Development: This provided housing for low income Americans and promoted urban renewal. Its purpose was to promote an improved condition for poor urban dwellers, but in cities like Chicago it promoted uncodified racism.
    • Immigration and Nationality services Act: This reversed the National Origins Act that discriminated based on national origin

14. Barry Goldwater and Conservatism: In the 1964 election, the liberal Democrat Johnson ran against the ultra-conservative Goldwater. Goldwater advocated an end to the welfare state, by abolishing programs like the TVA and SSA. However, he was also perceived as trigger happy, and many Americans came to believe that he would get the country involved in nuclear war. Johnson won.

15. Selma to Montgomery March: The purpose of the march was to advocate for voting rights. The marchers were met with severe violence, much of which was televised nationally. Johnson sent federal troops to protect the voters. In response to the violence, LBJ made a speech in favor of civil rights legislation, quoting the civil rights anthem “We Shall Overcome”. The Voting Rights Act brought an end to literacy tests, which had disenfranchised blacks. In many areas of the Deep South, the federal government provided registrars to ensure that blacks were able to vote.

16. Watts Riot: Just days after the Voting Rights Act was passed, a six day race riot erupted in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles, revealing that legislation cannot change racist attitudes and tensions.

17. Black Power: The Black Power movement was different from the Civil Rights Movement. They were not influenced by religion, and did not use the tactic of nonviolent civil disobedience. The Black Power movement sought black power, black separatism, and black nationalism, and used more militant tactics in attempting to achieve these goals.

    • Stokely Carmichael led the new SNCC, which advocated black power, especially economic power. His hate of nonviolence demonstrated the shift from civil rights to black power.
    • Huey Newton was the leader of the Black Panthers, a revolutionary socialist movement who advocated black nationalism. The Black Panthers were armed, which frightened many Americans.
    • Malcolm X led the Black Muslims, who sought to form a new cultural identity while advocating self defense and the use of black violence to counter white aggression.

18. LBJ and Vietnam: In the U.S. government’s desire to prevent the spread of Communism, it waged a war in Vietnam, which ended up wasting American lives and being a massive failure.

    • Tonkin Gulf Resolution: Allegedly, North Vietnamese forces had fired on U.S. warships in the Gulf of Tonkin. Johnson persuaded Congress that this event was sufficient reason for the U.S. to intervene with military forces. It gave Johnson the power to do what was necessary to protect U.S. interests in Vietnam.
    • Operation Rolling Thunder: This was a prolonged air attack in which the U.S. pursued aerial bombardment of North Vietnamese targets.
    • “Domino theory”: Developed by Eisenhower, the theory held that if South Vietnam fell to Communism, Southeast Asia as a whole would fall to Communism, making Australia and Oceania susceptible to the threat.
    • Role of television: The development of mass media facilitated the televisation of the war, which diminished public support for the war because it publicized the unnecessary casualties of the conflict, the poor decisions of the military, and the credibility gap between the U.S. government and the U.S. people.
    • Tet Offensive: On the Lunar New Year, the Viet Cong attacked South Vietnam, and while an American counterattack resulted in a victory, the VietCong essentially won because the offensive demoralized the American public. It also deepened the credibility gap because it demonstrated that what Johnson and the military were telling the public was inconsistent with what was actually happening.

19. 1968 Chicago Democratic Convention: While Johnson’s VP Hubert Humphrey was the easy choice for candidate at the Democratic nominating convention, Anti LBJ and Anti War protestors took to the streets, and the resulting violence marred the Democratic Party’s name by associating them with disorder.

The 70s - Society

1. Students for a Democratic Society (SDS): This was a radical student organization that called for university decisions to be made through a participatory democracy, so that students could help shape the policies that affected them.
2. The New Left : SDS ideas became embodied in the New Left, as students throughout the country protested limitations on political activity, drinking, dorm visits by the opposite sex, etc. Major anti war protests occurred due to the fact that most of the university students would be drafted right after college. Association with radicalism and violence often left the New Left discredited in the eyes of most Americans.
3. 1968 Democratic Convention (Chicago): The protests of the late 60s spilled over into the 1968 Democratic Convention when anti war protesters and radicals amassed in the streets of Chicago. Mayor Daley called in police, and the ensuing violence became emblematic of the decade of turmoil that was to come.
4. Counterculture: At the same time as New Left political protests, there was a rising counterculture that involved rebellion against conventional culture. This included eccentric styles of dress, music, drug use, and communal living. The Woodstock music festival embodied the counterculture, what with the drug use, casual sex, and music.
5. Betty Friedan and the Feminine Mystique: This book introduced the idea that women could both fulfill domestic roles while seeking professional jobs outside of the home. [Context of the Sexual Revolution]
6. “3rd Wave Feminism: Third wave feminism advocated for equal treatment of women, especially in terms of job opportunities. The National Organization for Women (NOW) promoted these goals through the activist tactics initiated by other civil rights movements. There was a certain degree of Conservative backlash towards the act due to threat Third Wave Feminism posed to traditional roles.
7. Roe v. Wade: In this ruling, the Supreme Court struck down state laws that prohibited abortions. This was because the laws violated a woman's right to privacy.
8. The Sexual Revolution: As a result of the rise of a counterculture and the development of modern medicine, there was a revolution in attitudes toward traditional ideals regarding sex. People became more open about premarital sex, homosexuality, and the use of contraception.
9. Cesar Chavez: As Hispanic Americans came to America, they often found agricultural jobs for low wages where they were subject to employer exploitation. Cesar Chavez successfully worked toward a victory in collective bargaining rights for Mexican Americans working in low paying agricultural jobs.
   10. American Indian Movement (AIM): The purpose of this movement was to gain self determination and revive tribal culture. Their tactics were militant (they occupied Wounded Knee, where the massacre had occurred less than a hundred years earlier) yet they were successful in gaining a greater degree of sovereignty and a greater pride in cultural heritage.
   11. Stonewall Riots: A police raid of a gay bar in NYC sparked both riots and a movement to improve gay rights.
   12. “The Silent Majority”: Conservative Americans, who were largely Republicans, southern whites, northern Catholics, and suburbanites, who disagree with the liberalism of the party.

The 70s - Policy

1. Vietnamization: Nixon began the process of decreasing the presence of US troops in Vietnam and replacing them with U.S. trained and funded Vietnamese troops.
2. “Cambodian incursion”: American troops invaded Cambodia due to the presence of Communist Viet Cong bases there. This angered anti war activists, and protests occurred nationwide. The Kent State Incident occurred when college students were killed during a protest of the Cambodian incursion by federal troops.
3. My Lai Massacre: The disclosure of a mass murder of Vietnamese women and children by the U.S. army exacerbated anti war sentiment.
4. Pentagon Papers: A top secret government document was leaked that detailed the deceptive actions of U.S. policy makers.
5. “Credibility Gap”: A number of actions by the government [My Lai Massacre, Tet Offensive, Pentagon Papers, Watergate] made U.S. citizens less trusting of their government. The government’s dishonesty with the American public gave rise to this “credibility gap”.
6. Nixon’s “southern strategy”: Nixon sought to appeal to the “silent majority” (Southern white Democrats, Northern Catholic suburbanites) by delaying integration and perpetuating segregation.
7. Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg: Busing is considered an acceptable tool to achieve racial balance at schools where segregation had been an official policy and where there were no better options.
8. Regents of the University of California v. Bakke: Declares the creation of racial quotas to be unconstitutional, however does not completely undermine the use of affirmative action in college admissions processes.
9. “Stagflation”: A combination of stagnation and inflation. Nixon tried to combat this by cutting federal spending, but this merely deepened the stagnation and increased unemployment. He then adopted Keynesian economics, which ended the recession. Inflation would remain an issue throughout the 70s.
   10. Rachel Carson and Silent Spring: This was an exposure of pesticides which reignited the conservation movement and promoted the passage of environmental legislation.
   11. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): This organization was established to limit and regulate toxic substances such as emissions and water pollution. It also sought to protect wildlife in America.
   12. Nixon on the New Deal/expansion of federal government: Nixon sought to limit welfare with his New Federalism program, also known as revenue sharing, which shifted power from the fmzz a federal government to state and local governments. Federal grants allowed local governments to use the money as they saw fit.
   13. Détente and SALT I: There was a detente in the relationships between the U.S. and China / Soviet Union. Nixon was the first president in years to visit the Communist country, leading to the reestablishment of diplomatic relationships. At SALT I, Soviet-U.S. arms race was slowed after the Soviets agreed to set a limit to the number of nuclear missiles.
   14. Shuttle Diplomacy: Secretary of State Henry Kissinger engaged in shuttle diplomacy, serving as an intermediary in Middle Eastern conflicts.
   15. Watergate: During the 1972 Election, the Committee for the Re-Election of the President (CREEP), used dirty tricks and illegal measures during the campaign. They broke into the Democratic National Headquarters at Watergate. Woodward and Bernstein, journalists, uncovered this break in, and its publication led to Nixon’s demise, due to the fact that he had engaged in obstruction of justice by trying to cover it up. Nixon attempted to use his executive privilege to withhold tapes from the wiretaps of the Oval Office. However, in U.S. v Richard M. Nixon, the Supreme Court held that executive privilege did not extend to documents relevant to criminal prosecutions. Rather than be impeached, Nixon resigned.
   16. Gerald Ford: After VP Spiro Agnew was forced to resign due to briberies he had engaged in earlier in his career, Ford (the Republican minority leader) became VP. When Nixon resigned, Ford became president. Ford lost the public’s confidence when he pardoned Nixon. He justified it as expediting an end to the national nightmare.
   17. SALT II: Détente moved ahead when the US and Soviets meet again for arms limitation talks. However, just before an agreement was met over the limitation of nuclear delivery systems, Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan. The Senate never ratified the treaty, and the thaw to Cold War tensions ended.
   18. Camp David Accords: Carter served as an intermediary between Egypt and Israel in peace talks that served as the basis for peace settlement between those two nations, and eventually Egyptian recognition of Israel. Egypt became the first Arab nation to recognize Israel, which provided a framework for peace in Middle Eastern affairs.
   19. Carter and the Economy: Inflation was still an issue under Carter. The government increased interest rates in an attempt to eliminate inflation. However, this simply exacerbated the situation, because it forced industries to lay off workers and discouraged consumers from stimulating the economy through purchases.
   20. Iranian Hostage Crisis: There was enmity in Iran towards the U.S. due to the fact that the U.S. had sanctioned the overthrow of a democratically elected leader in favor of the despotic shah who promoted western oil interests. Iranian militants seized 50 U.S. citizens working at the embassy in Tehran. After a military mission failed, the U.S. froze Iranian assets and eventually the hostages were freed.

The 80s

1. Moral Majority: Religious right promotes interests of conservative fundamentalists - government nonintervention in the economy, reversal of Roe v Wade decision, replacement of evolution w/ biblical teaching, women should submit to men.
2. Phyllis Schlafly: Staunchly opposed to feminist movement - believed that women belonged in domestic sphere. Also advocated for the pro-life movement.
3. Reaganomics: Reagan’s economies included supply side economic policies promote cutting taxes to promote growth and greater wealth for the wealthy. This trickle down theory held that prosperity for those at the top would have positive impacts for Americans of all classes. Yet Reagan’s failure to decrease the budget deficit promoted recession and “revenue enhancements” (taxes) despite promises to cut the budget and taxes.
4. Economic Recovery Tax Act: Cuts income tax by 25% and capital gains tax by 1/3.
5. Star Wars: Increased military spending, the development of advanced nuclear and conventional forces, and an escalation of the arms race gave rise to Star Wars, which involved the construction of a series of complex anti missile systems in space.
6. Foreign Interventions: U.S. pursued a policy of foreign interventionism during the time period. In Central America, the U.S. put military and economic aid into Cuba to counteract Cuban revolutionaries. In the Middle East, the U.S. got involved as a “peacekeeper” due to regional issues over Lebanese anarchy, Iran-Iraq War, and Soviet presence in Afghanistan. Many
7. ‘Americans were killed by an Islamist suicide bomber, prompting a decline of U.S. forces there. In response to a Communist takeover in Grenada, Reagan deployed troops, deposed of the new leftist government, and sanctioned the creation of a new government.
8. Nicaragua: A Cuban sponsored Sandinista government was on the rise, which Reagan sought to counteract by training guerilla bands of anti-Communist contras. It was discovered that the U.S. was illegally selling arms to Iran (who was considered an enemy due to the hostage crisis) and using the funds to fuel the Nicaraguan Contras. This Iran-Contra Affair reignited issues with the credibility gap.
9. AIDS: Rise of AIDS, as 200,000 citizens die from disease by 2000, while another million Americans carry it. Viewed as “gay disease” so the government’s action is limited to the creation of sexual education programs in schools which advocate “safe sex”.
   10. Mikhail Gorbachev: Soviet statesman who moves away from Communism, begins to advocate for peaceful relationships. Treaty w/ Gorbachev and U.S. eliminates long range nuclear missiles. This was significant b/c the two world powers were eliminating an entire class of weaponry and moving closer to ending the arms race.
   11. End of the Cold War: Reagan succeeded in bringing about an end to the Cold War, although this was partially luck b/c he happened to be president as the Soviet Union was dissolved and Russian Communism came to an end. He demanded that Gorbachev eliminate the gloomy symbol of the Cold War, the Berlin Wall, saying “tear down this wall”.