History and Approaches

What is Psychology?

• Psychology is the scientific study of the brain, mental processes (cognition), observable behavior, human and animal development across the lifespan, and social interactions. It employs empirical methods to understand behavior and mental processes in various contexts.

History of Psychology

• Psychology emerged from philosophy and physiology, with early thinkers exploring questions about the mind and behavior.

• Philosophers like Rene Descartes, John Locke, and Thomas Hobbes speculated on the nature of human existence, knowledge, and consciousness, laying a conceptual groundwork for psychology.

Rene Descartes

• Believed the physical world, including animals, operates according to observable laws akin to machines.

• Viewed creatures as complex mechanisms governed by predictable, natural laws.

• Posited that humans are unique due to their capacity for thought and reason, setting them apart from other creatures.

• Distinguished between the body (physical and governed by natural laws) and the mind (non-physical entity encompassing consciousness, thinking, and feeling); proposed the mind is not observable and not subject to natural laws.

• Proposed the mind and body interact through the pineal gland, a structure in the brain, to enable sensory perception, bodily control, and conscious experience.

John Locke

• Believed the mind, like the body, operates under the control of rules or laws that can be discovered through observation and reason.

• Advocated empiricism: the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should rely on observation and experimentation.

• Proposed humans are born as a tabula rasa (blank slate), suggesting that knowledge and character are shaped by experience rather than innate predispositions.

Thomas Hobbes

• Believed everything, including mental phenomena, could be understood in terms of materialism, which reduces all aspects of existence to matter and energy.

• Materialism is the belief that only matter and energy exist, and all phenomena are the result of material interactions.

• Denied the existence of a separate spirit or soul, asserting that consciousness arises from the physical activity of the brain.

• Consciousness is considered a byproduct of brain activity, emerging from neural processes without independent existence.

Schools of Thought

• Psychological theories and research approaches have been organized into various schools of thought, each offering a unique perspective on the study of mind and behavior.

• Each school describes some aspect of behavior, mental process, or social interaction, contributing to a diverse and multifaceted understanding of psychology.

Structuralism

• William Wundt:

  • Established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, marking the formal beginning of psychology as a science.

  • Championed structuralism, a school of thought aimed at analyzing the basic elements of the conscious mind, thus becoming known as the "father of structuralism."

  • Structuralism attempts to break down perception and consciousness into smaller, discrete units or elements to understand their fundamental structure.

  • Sensations (e.g., 'red', 'sharp', 'hard') are understood as the basic elements of consciousness from which more complex perceptions and thoughts are constructed.

• Introspection:

  • Trained subjects in introspection, the systematic examination of one’s own mental and emotional processes to understand the nature of consciousness.

  • Subjects recorded their cognitive reactions to simple stimuli under carefully controlled conditions to identify the basic elements of perception and thought.

  • Subjects were asked to describe their sensations without referring to the name of the object, focusing instead on the qualities of their sensory experience.

• Structuralism is no longer an active area of study in psychology due to its limitations in subjectivity and lack of generalizability.

Functionalism

• William James:

  • Published The Principles of Psychology in 1890, psychology’s first comprehensive and influential textbook, which helped to establish psychology as a distinct field of study.

  • Championed functionalism, a school of thought that emphasized the purpose of mental processes in adapting to the environment.

• Functionalism:

  • Considers mental life and behavior in terms of active adaptation to the individual’s environment, focusing on how mental processes serve to enhance survival and well-being.

  • Influenced by Darwin and evolutionary theory, functionalism views psychological traits and behaviors as adaptations that have evolved to serve specific functions.

  • Example: A baby cries as a successful adaptation for survival, eliciting care and attention from caregivers to ensure basic needs are met.

  • Functionalism is not an active area of psychology anymore, but its emphasis on adaptive functions has influenced the development of evolutionary psychology and applied psychology.

Gestalt Psychology

• Max Wertheimer:

  • Argued against dividing human thought and behavior into discrete subjects (opposed structuralism), emphasizing the holistic nature of perception and cognition.

  • Gestalt theorists argue that "the whole is something else than the sum of its parts," suggesting that perception and understanding depend on the overall organization and relationships of elements.

• Gestalt psychology is not an active area of research anymore, but some ideas have been adopted by cognitive psychology, particularly in the study of perception and problem-solving.

Psychoanalysis

• Sigmund Freud:

  • Described how the unconscious mind, dreams, and psychological mechanisms influence behavior, proposing a comprehensive theory of personality and psychopathology.

  • Psychoanalysis includes theories about the unconscious mind and therapeutic techniques aimed at bringing unconscious thoughts and feelings into conscious awareness.

• Psychoanalysts believe the unconscious mind controls many thoughts and behaviors, often without conscious awareness or intention.

• They look for impulses or memories pushed into the unconscious to understand their influence on behavior, using techniques such as dream analysis and free association.

Behavioral Psychology

• Ivan Pavlov:

  • Studied digestion in dogs and discovered classical conditioning, a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and elicits a similar response.

  • Noticed dogs salivated at the sound of his or his assistant's footsteps, associating it with food, which led to investigations into the principles of associative learning.

• Classical Conditioning Example:

  • Before conditioning:

  • Food (unconditioned stimulus) -> Salivation (unconditioned response)

  • Tuning fork (neutral stimulus) -> No salivation (no conditioned response)

  • During conditioning:

  • Tuning fork + Food -> Salivation (unconditioned response)

  • After conditioning:

  • Tuning fork (conditioned stimulus) -> Salivation (conditioned response)

• John Watson:

  • Demonstrated that a neutral stimulus (e.g., a rabbit) could be conditioned to cause fear by pairing it with an abrasive noise, illustrating the role of learning in the development of emotional responses.

• B.F. Skinner:

  • Expanded behaviorism to include reinforcement and punishment (operant conditioning), which involves learning through the consequences of behavior.

Humanistic Perspective

• Key Figures: Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers

• Stresses individual choice and freewill (opposes determinism in psychoanalysis and behaviorism), emphasizing the capacity for personal growth and self-determination.

• Humanistic psychologists believe we choose most behaviors guided by physiological, emotional, and spiritual needs, seeking fulfillment and self-actualization.

• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:

  • Physiological needs: food, water, warmth, rest (Basic needs) - These are the fundamental requirements for survival.

  • Safety needs: security, safety (Basic needs) - Including protection from harm and stability.

  • Belongingness and love needs: intimate relationships, friends (Psychological needs) - Which involve social connections and affection.

  • Esteem needs: prestige and feeling of accomplishment (Self-fulfillment needs) - Reflecting the desire for competence and recognition.

  • Self-actualization: achieving one's full potential, including creative activities (Self-fulfillment needs) - Representing the realization of one’s unique potential.

Biopsychology

• Explains behavior and thought in terms of biological processes such as hormones, genetics, neurotransmitters, disease, and brain lesions, focusing on the physiological substrates of behavior.

Evolutionary Psychology

• Examines human thoughts and behaviors in terms of natural selection, considering how evolutionary pressures have shaped psychological traits and behaviors.

• Advantageous psychological traits for survival are passed on (e.g., preferences for certain foods, social behaviors), while maladaptive traits are less likely to be inherited (e.g., obesity example, where a preference for high-calorie foods may have been advantageous in times of scarcity but is now a risk factor for obesity).

Cognitive Perspective

• Examines behavior and thought in terms of how we interpret, process, and remember information, focusing on cognitive processes such as attention, memory, and problem-solving.

• Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development focuses on how our thinking develops as we develop from infants to adults, describing distinct stages of cognitive development.

• A cognitive psychologist might explain extroversion in terms of how someone interprets social situations, suggesting that extroverts may perceive social interactions as rewarding and stimulating.

Sociocultural Psychology

• Examines how thoughts and behaviors vary across cultures, emphasizing the role of cultural norms, values, and beliefs in shaping psychological processes.

• Emphasizes the influence of culture on how we act and think, recognizing that cultural factors can significantly impact behavior and mental processes.

• Considers the value placed on being part of a group versus being an individual, noting that collectivist cultures emphasize group harmony and interdependence, while individualistic cultures prioritize personal autonomy and achievement.

• Recognizes that behaviors appropriate in some countries are not in others, highlighting the importance of cultural sensitivity in understanding and interpreting behavior.

Biopsychosocial Model

• Acknowledges that human thinking and behavior results from combinations of biological, psychological, and social factors, integrating multiple perspectives to provide a comprehensive understanding of behavior and mental health.

• Example: Anorexia explained through biological (genetic predispositions), psychological (perfectionism, body image concerns), and cultural causes (societal pressures for thinness).

Summary Table of Approaches