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• University of Kansas

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• Call Number: PE2751 .K57 2007

• Paging Notes:

  • Location: Watson Library Stacks - 2

• Journal Title: World Englishes: Implications for international communication and English language teaching

• ISSN: -

• Volume and Issue: -

• Month/Year: 2007

• Pages: 119-136

• Author: Andy Kirkpatrick

• Article Title: 9. Englishes of South-East Asia - colonial descendants?

• Electronic transmission from: University of Kansas Watson Library, Main ILL Office

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  • Email: illlend@ku.edu

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Overview of Englishes in South-East Asia

Geographic Context

• South-East Asia includes various culturally and linguistically distinct countries, particularly those in the ASEAN (Association of South-East Asian Nations).

• ASEAN Member Countries:

  • Brunei

  • Cambodia

  • Indonesia

  • Laos

  • Malaysia

  • Myanmar

  • The Philippines

  • Singapore

  • Thailand

  • Vietnam

Focus of the Chapter

• Discussion on Englishes in Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, and the Philippines.

• The interconnectedness of the role of English as an international lingua franca in ASEAN.

Colonial History Impact

• Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei:

  • 1826: British established the colony of the 'Straits Settlements' (incl. Singapore, Malacca, and Penang).

  • Early establishment of English medium schools with the first being in Penang (1816), Singapore (1823), and Malacca (1826).

  • Colonial government's encouragement of migrant labour for natural resources (tin and rubber).

  • Massive influx of Chinese workers and South Indian workers during the 19th century.

Post-independence Language Dynamics

• At independence (1957), both English and Malay were official languages in Malaysia.

• The Malaysian government aimed to promote the Malay language (Bahasa Malaysia).

  • Resulting in educational policies that led to a phasing out of English-language instruction and an increase in the dominance of Malay.

Role of English in Education

• Malaysia:

  • Emphasis on improving Malay’s status over English post-independence led many ethnic Chinese to pursue education abroad, contributing to international fees and funding for foreign universities.

  • Declining English proficiency led to the implementation of the Malaysian University English Test (MUET) for university entry.

  • English retains prestige and importance in government, business, and professional contexts.

• Singapore:

  • By 1947, 32% of students studied in English-medium schools.

  • Shift to English as the predominant medium of education amidst fears of communist influence from Chinese educational systems.

  • Bilingual policy prioritizing English and a mother tongue; resulted in a sociolinguistic shift towards English as the prominent lingua franca.

Linguistic Features and Distinctiveness

• Linguistic Landscape of Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei includes diverse features stemming from local languages integrated into English.

• Variants classified along a lectal continuum from basilect to acrolect, reflecting degrees of formality.

• Phonological Characteristics:

  • Variability in vowel distinctions and certain consonant pairings as compared to Received Pronunciation (RP).

  • Notable non-rhoticity in Singaporean English; syllable timing as an applied feature.

• Lexical Borrowings:

  • Incorporation of Malay terms and local phrases into English, e.g., "gotong-royong" and "lesen terbang.

  • Hybridized phrases indicative of cultural amalgamation e.g., 'to run amok'.

Code-mixing and Code-switching

• Recognition of code-mixing (intra-sentential) and code-switching (inter-sentential) prevalent due to multilingual speakers.

• Criticism from some scholars of code-mixed forms as linguistically deficient dismissed in favor of revelations of complexity and structural sophistication.

Philippines Context

• The Philippines: Extensive linguistic diversity from colonial history, including American and Spanish influences.

• English established as a national language, necessitating translation into Filipino for educational needs.

• Ongoing assessment of English's role despite assertions that it is seen as unimportant for socio-economic mobility.

• Linguistic features of Philippine English illustrate unique phonological attributes, lexical shifts, and grammatical structures less conventional in other English varieties.

Singaporean English is noted for its significant development as the predominant medium of education by 1947, where 32% of students were studying in English-medium schools. This shift was partly driven by fears of communist influence from Chinese educational systems.

A bilingual policy was implemented prioritizing English alongside a mother tongue, resulting in a sociolinguistic shift that positioned English as the main lingua franca.

Linguistically, Singaporean English incorporates diverse features derived from local languages, reflected along a lectal continuum from basilect to acrolect, which indicates varying degrees of formality. Phonological characteristics show variability in vowel distinctions and notable non-rhoticity. Additionally, Singaporean English often includes lexical borrowings from Malay and local phrases, as well as hybridized phrases that illustrate cultural integration.