plaud psyc end chapter 5, beginning chapter 6

## Key Learnings

1. Punishment: Punishment is defined as any event or object following a response that makes that response less likely to happen. It is the opposite of reinforcement, which increases behavior. Punishment decreases behavior.

2. Drawbacks of Severe Punishment: Severe punishment, particularly physical punishment, can have several drawbacks, including avoidance of the punisher, modeling aggression, and creating fear and anxiety.

3. Effective Punishment: For punishment to be effective, it needs to be immediate, consistent, and paired with reinforcement for good behavior.

4. Shaping: Shaping is a method of training by reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior.

5. Token Economy: Token economy is a behavior modification technique where desired behaviors are reinforced with tokens that can be exchanged for rewards.

6. Latent Learning: Latent learning is a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned.

7. Learned Helplessness: Learned helplessness is a condition in which a person or animal has learned to behave helplessly, failing to respond even though there are opportunities to avoid unpleasant circumstances or gain positive rewards.

8. Cycle of Abuse: The cycle of abuse is a social cycle theory developed to explain patterns of behavior in an abusive relationship. It consists of a repeating cycle of tension building, explosion, and honeymoon phases.

9. Observational Learning: Observational learning is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. It is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes.

10. Memory: Memory is an active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters that information as it stores it away, and retrieves that information from storage.

11. Models of Memory: There are three major theories about how memory works: the information processing model, the parallel distributed processing model, and the levels of processing model.

12. Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment: An experiment where children observed an aggressive model and copied that aggressive behavior.

## Explanations

### 1. Punishment

- **Key Points**

- Punishment equals behavior decrease.

- Two forms of punishment: punishment by application (positive punishment) and punishment by removal (negative punishment).

- **Explanation**

Punishment is used to decrease the likelihood of a behavior reoccurring. Positive punishment involves adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior, while negative punishment involves removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

- **Positive Punishment Examples**

> Examples include spanking, getting yelled at, or burning your hand on a hot stove.

1. Positive punishment involves adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior.

2. In these examples, an unpleasant stimulus is added to discourage the behavior.

- **Negative Punishment Examples**

> Examples include taking away a child's cell phone, video game system, or computer, paying a late fine, or getting a speeding ticket.

1. Negative punishment involves removing a pleasurable stimulus to decrease a behavior.

2. In these examples, something desirable is taken away to discourage the behavior.

### 2. Drawbacks of Severe Punishment

- **Key Points**

- Can cause avoidance of the punisher instead of the behavior.

- May encourage lying to avoid punishment.

- Creates fear and anxiety.

- Models aggression as a way to solve problems.

- **Explanation**

Severe punishment can lead to negative outcomes such as avoidance of the punisher rather than the behavior, increased likelihood of lying, fear, anxiety, and modeling aggression.

### 3. Effective Punishment

- **Key Points**

- Punishment should immediately follow the behavior.

- Punishment should be consistent every time the behavior occurs.

- Good behaviors should be reinforced alongside punishing bad behaviors.

- **Explanation**

Effective punishment requires immediacy and consistency to ensure the individual associates the punishment with the behavior. Reinforcing good behavior alongside punishing bad behavior helps in learning.

### 4. Shaping

- **Key Points**

- Break down a large behavior into small, manageable steps.

- Use heavy reinforcement in the early stages.

- Gradually reinforce as the individual gets closer to the desired behavior.

- **Explanation**

Shaping involves reinforcing small steps that lead to a larger, more complex behavior. It is effective for training animals and children by rewarding incremental progress.

- **Pigeon Pecking Experiment**

> A pigeon was trained to peck at a red blinking light by reinforcing small steps towards the behavior.

1. Initially, the pigeon was rewarded for looking at the light.

2. Rewards were gradually given for taking steps towards the light.

3. Eventually, the pigeon was only rewarded for pecking the light.

### 5. Token Economy

- **Key Points**

- Tokens are given for desired behaviors.

- Tokens can be exchanged for larger rewards.

- Provides a sense of accomplishment as tokens accumulate.

- **Explanation**

In a token economy, individuals receive tokens for exhibiting desired behaviors. These tokens can be saved and exchanged for rewards, reinforcing the behavior.

- **Smoking Cessation Example**

> A person trying to quit smoking saved the money they would have spent on cigarettes as tokens, which they later used to buy something nice.

1. The individual calculated daily cigarette expenses.

2. Each day without smoking, the equivalent money was saved.

3. The accumulated savings were used as a reward.

### 6. Latent Learning

- **Key Points**

- Latent learning occurs without reinforcement.

- It involves the formation of a mental map.

- The learning becomes apparent when there is motivation to demonstrate it.

- **Explanation**

Latent learning was demonstrated in an experiment where a group of subjects did not receive any rewards for the first 10 days. However, once they received a reward on the 11th day, their performance improved significantly, indicating that they had learned the maze layout without reinforcement.

- **Tolman's Latent Learning Experiment**

> In Tolman's experiment, group two did not receive any rewards for the first 10 days. On the 11th day, they received a reward, and their number of mistakes decreased significantly, outperforming the group that was rewarded every time.

1. For the first 10 days, group two formed a mental map of the maze without any rewards.

2. On the 11th day, when they received a reward, they used the mental map to navigate the maze efficiently.

3. This demonstrated that learning had occurred without reinforcement, and it became apparent when there was motivation to use it.

### 7. Learned Helplessness

- **Key Points**

- Learned helplessness results from repeated exposure to uncontrollable events.

- It can explain certain human behaviors, such as depression and staying in abusive relationships.

- It involves a failure to act to escape a situation due to a history of repeated failures.

- **Explanation**

Learned helplessness was demonstrated in an experiment with dogs, where they were repeatedly exposed to an inescapable shock. Eventually, even when the escape was possible, the dogs did not attempt to escape, showing learned helplessness.

- **Dog Experiment on Learned Helplessness**

> In the experiment, dogs were placed in a box where they were repeatedly exposed to an inescapable shock. Eventually, even when the escape was possible, the dogs did not attempt to escape.

1. Initially, dogs could escape the shock by jumping over a hurdle.

2. In the experimental group, the hurdle was blocked, making escape impossible, and the dogs were repeatedly shocked.

3. Over time, the dogs stopped trying to escape, even when the hurdle was removed, demonstrating learned helplessness.

### 8. Cycle of Abuse

- **Key Points**

- The cycle of abuse includes tension building, explosion, and honeymoon phases.

- Abuse is about power and control.

- The cycle tends to worsen over time.

- **Explanation**

In abusive relationships, the cycle of abuse involves a tension-building phase, followed by an explosion where abuse occurs, and then a honeymoon phase where the abuser apologizes and the cycle repeats. Over time, the abuse tends to escalate.

### 9. Observational Learning

- **Key Points**

- Observational learning involves learning by watching others.

- Key elements include attention, memory, imitation, and desire.

- It can lead to the replication of both positive and negative behaviors.

- **Explanation**

Observational learning involves watching a model perform a behavior and then replicating it. It requires attention to the model, memory of the observed behavior, the ability to imitate the behavior, and the desire to perform it.

- **Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment**

> In Bandura's experiment, children watched a model behave aggressively towards a Bobo doll. The children who observed the aggressive model were more likely to imitate the aggressive behavior.

1. Children were divided into groups observing aggressive and non-aggressive models.

2. Those who observed the aggressive model imitated the aggressive behavior towards the Bobo doll.

3. The experiment demonstrated that children learn and replicate behaviors observed in others.

### 10. Memory

- **Key Points**

- Memory consists of three parts: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

- Encoding involves converting environmental and mental stimuli into memorable brain codes.

- Storage is the process of holding onto encoded information.

- Retrieval is the ability to pull information out of storage for use.

- **Explanation**

Memory is broken down into three parts: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding is like converting files into a format that the brain can understand, similar to converting video or music files for a computer. Storage involves keeping this information in the brain, while retrieval is about accessing this stored information when needed.

- **Test Review Example**

> In class, students were given a test review. Encoding involved filling out the test review, storage was studying and remembering the review, and retrieval was using the information during the test.

1. Encoding: Writing answers on the test review.

2. Storage: Studying and memorizing the test review.

3. Retrieval: Using the memorized information to answer test questions.

### 11. Models of Memory

- **Key Points**

- Information Processing Model: Memory contains three systems - sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

- Parallel Distributed Processing Model: Memories are stored over a large neural network, not in a single location.

- Levels of Processing Model: The deeper information is processed, the stronger the memory formed.

- **Explanation**

The information processing model divides memory into sensory, short-term, and long-term systems. The parallel distributed processing model suggests memories are stored across a neural network. The levels of processing model indicates that deeper processing results in stronger memories.

- **Rat Maze Experiment**

> Rats were taught a maze, and parts of their brains were removed to see if they still remembered the maze.

1. The experiment showed that memory of the maze wasn't stored in a single location, supporting the parallel distributed processing model.

- **Word Memory Activity**

> Participants were asked to remember words based on syllables and then based on whether they were positive or negative.

1. First list: Participants focused on syllables, a shallow processing method.

2. Second list: Participants focused on the meaning (positive/negative), a deeper processing method.

3. Results showed better recall with deeper processing, supporting the levels of processing model.

### 12. Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

- **Key Points**

- The experiment demonstrated that children imitate aggressive behavior observed in models.

- Raises questions about the impact of violent media on children's behavior.

- **Explanation**

The Bobo Doll experiment showed that children who observed aggressive behavior were likely to imitate it. This raises questions about whether exposure to violent media, such as video games and movies, leads to aggressive behavior in children.