• Behaviorism - A psychological theory that focuses on observable behavior and the environment's impact on it.

• Classical conditioning - A type of learning in which an organism learns to associate two stimuli, resulting in a natural response to a previously neutral stimulus.

• Pavlov, Watson - Ivan Pavlov and John Watson were two prominent behaviorists who developed classical conditioning theory.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a specific response.

• Unconditioned Response (UCR) - A natural response to an unconditioned stimulus.

• Neutral Stimulus (NS) - A stimulus that does not trigger a response.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - A previously neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

• Conditioned Response (CR) - A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

• Baby Albert - A case study in which John Watson and Rosalie Rayner conditioned an infant to fear a white rat through classical conditioning.

• Acquisition - The process of learning through which an organism learns to associate a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

• Extinction - The process by which a conditioned response becomes weakened or disappears when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

• Generalization - The tendency to respond to similar stimuli in the same way as the conditioned stimulus.

• Discrimination - The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond only to the conditioned stimulus.

• Spontaneous Recovery - The reappearance of a previously extinct conditioned response after a period of time.

• Taste aversion - A type of classical conditioning in which a previously neutral food or drink is paired with an unpleasant experience, resulting in an aversion to that food or drink.

• Operant conditioning - A type of learning in which behavior is shaped by its consequences.

• B.F. Skinner - A prominent behaviorist who developed the theory of operant conditioning.

• Reinforcement - The process of increasing the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated.

• Positive reinforcement - The process of increasing the likelihood of a behavior by adding a desirable stimulus.

• Negative reinforcement - The process of increasing the likelihood of a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus.

• Primary reinforcer - A naturally rewarding stimulus, such as food or water.

• Secondary reinforcer - A learned reward, such as money or praise.

• Continuous reinforcement - The process of reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.

• Partial reinforcement - The process of reinforcing a behavior only some of the time.

• Punishment - The process of decreasing the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated.

• Positive punishment - The process of decreasing the likelihood of a behavior by adding an aversive stimulus.

• Negative punishment - The process of decreasing the likelihood of a behavior by removing a desirable stimulus.

• Shaping - The process of gradually reinforcing behaviors that approximate a desired behavior.

• Observational learning - A type of learning in which an organism learns by observing others.

• Latent learning - Learning that occurs without any apparent reinforcement.

• Insight - A sudden understanding of how to solve a problem.

• Learned helplessness - A phenomenon in which an organism learns to be helpless in a situation in which it is repeatedly subjected to negative stimuli.

• Martha E. Bernal, Ph.D. - A prominent Mexican-American psychologist who focused on cultural factors in psychological research.

Cognition

• Prototype: A mental representation of the "typical" or ideal example of a category or concept.

• Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure or formula for solving a problem.

• Heuristic: A mental shortcut or rule of thumb used to make decisions and solve problems.

• Mental set: A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often leading to the same type of solution.

• Confirmation bias: The tendency to seek out information that confirms our pre-existing beliefs and ignore information that contradicts them.

• Framing: The way information is presented can influence how people perceive and respond to it.

• Representativeness heuristic: A mental shortcut where we judge the likelihood of an event based on how closely it matches our pre-existing mental prototype for that event.

• Availability heuristic: A mental shortcut where we judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily it comes to mind.

• Anchoring heuristic: A mental shortcut where we rely too heavily on the first piece of information we receive when making decisions.

• Affect heuristic: A mental shortcut where we base our judgments and decisions on our emotional reactions to a stimulus.

• Affective forecasting: The process of predicting how we will feel in the future in response to a particular event or decision.

• Functional fixedness: The tendency to see objects and concepts only in their traditional, customary roles.

Language

• Chomsky’s Nativist theory: The idea that humans are born with an innate ability to learn language.

• Formalist theory of language development: The idea that language is learned through a set of rules and structures.

• Social-pragmatic theory: The idea that language is learned through social interactions and experiences.

• One-word Stage: The first stage of language development where children typically use single words to convey meaning.

• Language: A system of communication consisting of sounds, symbols, and rules for combining them.

Intelligence

• Spearman's general intelligence (g): The idea that intelligence is a general factor that underlies all mental abilities.

• Catell’s fluid and crystallized intelligences: Fluid intelligence refers to the ability to solve new problems and adapt to new situations, while crystallized intelligence refers to accumulated knowledge and skills.

• Practical/Successful Intelligence: The ability to apply knowledge and skills to real-world situations and adapt to changing environments.

• Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences: The idea that intelligence is made up of a variety of distinct abilities, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, and interpersonal.

• Emotional Intelligence: The ability to recognize, understand, and manage our own emotions and those of others.

• Intelligence test: A standardized measure of cognitive abilities.

• Intelligence Quotient (IQ): A score that represents a person's relative intelligence based on a standardized test.

• Normal curve, scores: The distribution of IQ scores follows a bell-shaped curve, with most people scoring around the average score of 100.

• Giftedness, intellectual disability: Giftedness refers to exceptional intelligence or abilities, while intellectual disability refers to significantly below-average intelligence or abilities.

• Reliability, validity: Reliability refers to the consistency and accuracy of test results, while validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

• Test bias: The tendency for a test to systematically favor certain groups or individuals over others.

• Culture-fair intelligence tests: Tests designed to minimize cultural bias and measure cognitive abilities that are independent of cultural and social background.

Motivation

• Motivation refers to the internal and external factors that drive a person to behave in a particular way.

• Intrinsic motivation comes from within the person, such as a desire to learn for its own sake or to accomplish a personal goal.

• Extrinsic motivation comes from outside the person, such as a reward or punishment.

Theories of Motivation

• Instinct theory suggests that behavior is driven by innate instincts, which are fixed patterns of behavior that are present in all members of a species.

• Drive-reduction theory proposes that behavior is driven by a need to reduce physiological tension or arousal.

• Arousal theory suggests that behavior is driven by a need to maintain an optimal level of arousal or stimulation.

• Incentive theory proposes that behavior is motivated by external rewards or punishments.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

• Maslow's theory proposes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy, with lower-level needs such as physiological and safety needs taking precedence over higher-level needs such as self-actualization.

Emotion

• Emotion is a complex psychological state that involves subjective feelings, physiological responses, and behavioral expressions.

• The James-Lange theory suggests that emotions arise from physiological arousal and subsequent interpretation of that arousal.

• The Cannon-Bard theory proposes that emotions arise from the simultaneous activation of physiological arousal and subjective feelings.

• The Schachter-Singer theory suggests that emotions arise from a combination of physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation.

• The cognitive appraisal theory proposes that emotions arise from the individual's cognitive interpretation of a situation.

Facial Feedback Theory

• The facial feedback theory proposes that facial expressions can influence and even create emotions.

Emotional Regulation

• Emotional regulation refers to the ability to manage and control one's emotions in order to adapt to different situations and achieve goals.

Display Rules

• Display rules are social and cultural norms that dictate how, when, and where emotions should be expressed.

Six Basic Facial Expressions

• The six basic facial expressions are happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust.

• Developmental Psychology: The scientific study of human development across the lifespan, including physical, cognitive, and socioemotional changes.

• Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Designs: Cross-sectional designs compare groups of different ages at one point in time, while longitudinal designs follow the same group of individuals over an extended period.

• Nature and Nurture: The debate about the extent to which genes (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) influence human development.

• Teratogen: Any substance, organism, or condition that can cause a birth defect or negatively impact the development of an embryo or fetus.

• Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: A theory that explains how children develop their thinking and reasoning abilities through a series of stages.

• Schema, Assimilation, Accommodation: Schema is a mental framework that organizes and interprets information. Assimilation is when new information fits into existing schemas, while accommodation occurs when new information requires a modification of existing schemas.

• Stages of Cognitive Development: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational: Piaget's theory includes four stages of cognitive development, which are characterized by different types of thinking and abilities.

• Object Permanence, Conservation, Egocentrism: Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight. Conservation is the understanding that the amount of a substance remains the same even when its shape changes. Egocentrism is the inability to see things from another person's perspective.

• Attachment: The emotional bond that develops between a caregiver and a child.

• Harlow's Experiment with Monkeys: A study that showed that infant monkeys preferred a soft, cloth-covered mother over a wire mother that provided food.

• Ainsworth's Attachment Styles: Secure, Insecure-Avoidant, Insecure-Resistant, Disorganized: Ainsworth's research identified four attachment styles that reflect different patterns of behavior and emotional responses in infants.

• Parenting Styles: Authoritarian, Permissive, Authoritative: Three main types of parenting styles that vary in their level of control and warmth.

• Temperament: A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

• Three Types of Temperament: Easy, Difficult, Slow to Warm: Easy infants are adaptable and have regular routines, difficult infants have irregular routines and are more reactive, and slow-to-warm infants are initially hesitant but eventually become more comfortable with new situations.

• Adolescence: The transitional period between childhood and adulthood, marked by significant physical, cognitive, and socioemotional changes.

• Imaginary Audience: A belief among adolescents that they are constantly being watched and evaluated by others.

• Personal Fable: A belief among adolescents that they are unique and invulnerable to harm.

• Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning: A theory that proposes three levels of moral reasoning, each with two stages, that reflect different levels of reasoning about right and wrong.

• Preconventional Morality, Conventional Morality, Postconventional Morality: The three levels of moral reasoning in Kohlberg's theory, which reflect increasing levels of abstract and principled thinking.

• Erikson's 8 Psychosocial Stages: A theory that identifies eight stages of psychosocial development that individuals go through across the lifespan.

• Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion, Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, Ego Integrity vs. Despair: The eight stages of psychosocial development in Erikson's theory, which each represent a different conflict or challenge that individuals face as they grow and develop.

• Emerging Adulthood: A period of life, typically from late teens to mid-to-late 20

1. Culture: Refers to the shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that characterize a group or society. Culture is learned, transmitted from generation to generation, and is instrumental in shaping people's perceptions and behaviors.

2. Worldview: A comprehensive framework of beliefs and attitudes that individuals use to interpret and understand the world around them. Worldviews are influenced by culture, personal experiences, and other factors, and they shape how people approach and interact with the world.

3. Dynamic sizing: The ability to adjust to different cultural contexts and effectively communicate and interact with people from diverse backgrounds.

4. Multiculturalism: The recognition and appreciation of the diversity of cultures within a society, and the belief that different cultural perspectives and practices can enrich a community.

5. Acculturation: The process by which individuals or groups adopt the cultural practices and values of a dominant or host culture, while still maintaining some aspects of their original culture.

6. Acculturation strategies: There are four main acculturation strategies: assimilation (adopting the host culture and abandoning the original culture), separation (maintaining the original culture and avoiding contact with the host culture), marginalization (rejecting both the original and host cultures), and integration (adopting aspects of both the original and host cultures).

7. Acculturative stress: The stress and psychological distress that individuals may experience when adapting to a new culture or living in a multicultural environment.

8. Individualism vs collectivism: Two contrasting cultural values that refer to the degree to which individuals prioritize personal goals and independence (individualism) versus group goals and interdependence (collectivism).

9. Cultural intelligence: The ability to understand, appreciate, and effectively navigate cultural differences and adapt to new cultural contexts.

10. Microaggressions: Subtle, indirect, or unintentional acts of discrimination or prejudice towards individuals from marginalized groups, often perpetuated by people with privilege or power.

11. Sex: Refers to the biological characteristics that distinguish males and females, such as reproductive organs and hormones.

12. Gender: Refers to the social and cultural expectations and norms associated with being male or female, as well as the personal sense of identity that individuals have regarding their gender.

13. Cisgender, Transgender, Transition: Cisgender refers to individuals whose gender identity aligns with the sex they were assigned at birth, while transgender refers to individuals whose gender identity does not align with their assigned sex. Transition refers to the process of affirming and aligning one's gender identity through various means, such as medical interventions or changes in presentation.

14. Sexual orientation: Refers to a person's emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attraction to others. Common sexual orientations include heterosexual, homosexual, and bisexual.

15. LGBTQ: An acronym that stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer/questioning, and other individuals who identify outside of traditional gender and sexual orientation norms.

16. Harry Kitano, Ph.D.: An influential scholar in the field of Asian American Studies, who made significant contributions to the study of race, ethnicity, and immigration in the United States.