First part of interwar period
Background and Context
Germany's Revolution (1918): The revolution occurred without revolutionaries, caused mainly by the collapse of the old order rather than a surge of new forces.
End of the Monarchy: The German emperor and the military high command withdrew, leaving the Social Democrats to manage the post-war situation.
Social Democrats in Power: The leading party after the revolution was the Social Democrats, who followed a more moderate, revisionist form of Marxism.
The Social Democrats
Moderate Marxists: They had a history of building labor organizations and political support. In 1912, they became the largest party in the Reichstag.
Conservative Approach: In 1918, they aimed to preserve their achievements rather than pursue radical social change.
Political Positioning: Initially considered left-wing, they were repositioned to the middle due to the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. The Communists viewed them as traitors, while traditional reactionaries saw them as too radical.
Threats from the Left and Right
Fear of Bolshevism: The Social Democrats, supported by the Catholic Center party, were more wary of leftist radicalism than right-wing forces.
The Spartacist Uprising (January 1919): The Spartacists, led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, attempted to initiate a proletarian revolution with support from the Russian Bolsheviks. The Social Democratic government, however, used demobilized soldiers and volunteer militias to suppress the uprising. The Spartacist leaders were executed, deepening divisions between the Social Democrats and Communists.
Formation of the Weimar Republic
National Constituent Assembly (1919): Following the suppression of the Spartacists, elections were held. No single party gained a majority, but the Social Democrats emerged as the leading party.
Weimar Constitution (July 1919): After deliberations, a democratic constitution was adopted, establishing the Weimar Republic, which lasted until the rise of Hitler in 1933.
Key Challenges
Ongoing Threats: The Weimar Republic faced significant threats from both the far left (Communists) and far right (monarchists, military officers, and business interests).
These notes provide a concise overview of the situation in Germany during the establishment of the Weimar Republic and the political dynamics that shaped its early years.
Spartacist Uprising (1919)
Communist Attempt: The Spartacists, a revolutionary socialist group, tried to initiate a Soviet-style communist revolution in early 1919.
Suppression: The Social Democratic Provisional Government crushed the uprising, with some reactionary forces also involved.
Consequences: The suppression of the Spartacists resulted in a deepening divide between Social Democrats and Communists.
The Kapp Putsch (1920)
Right-Wing Armed Revolt: A group of disaffected army officers launched a putsch, aiming to overthrow the Weimar Republic and establish a government led by Dr. Kapp.
Failure of the Putsch: The workers in Berlin effectively stopped the coup by striking and shutting down essential utilities, thus forcing the putschists to back down.
Weimar Response: The government did not take decisive action to dismantle private armed groups that were anti-democratic, allowing figures like Adolf Hitler to later challenge the Republic.
The Weimar Republic's Democratic Principles
Highly Democratic Features: The Weimar Constitution incorporated universal suffrage, including women's voting rights, proportional representation, and mechanisms like the initiative, referendum, and recall.
Absence of Radical Change: Despite being a democracy, the Republic was not socialist. There were no significant expropriations, nationalizations, or major agrarian reforms.
Old Establishment Continuity: Traditional power structures remained intact, including the civil service, judiciary, and military. Even the estates of the East Elbian Junkers and the statues of royalty were untouched.
Military Tradition: Although the army was reduced to 100,000 men by the Treaty of Versailles, it retained its Prussian military traditions.
The Limits of the Weimar Revolution
Mild and Tolerant: The revolution was non-violent and lacked the radical changes seen in other historical revolutions. There was no terror, major property confiscation, or forced emigration.
Conservative Governance: The Social Democrats, although architects of the Republic, did not implement a socialist agenda. The policies remained largely conservative, catering to established interests.
The Postwar Dilemma for Germany
Adjustment Challenges: The major issue was how Germany would adapt to both the new democratic regime and the conditions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles.
Interconnected Issues: The Weimar Republic and the Treaty of Versailles were both direct results of Germany's defeat in World War I, making their acceptance linked in the minds of many Germans.
Democracy and Popular Acceptance: While many Germans, especially Social Democrats, favored democracy, acceptance of the Treaty of Versailles was limited. The treaty was seen as unjust and imposed under duress.
The Treaty of Versailles as a "Diktat"
German Opposition: The treaty was perceived as a "diktat," or dictated peace, seen as harsh and punitive. The Allies continued the naval blockade after the armistice, reinforcing this view.
"War Guilt" Clause: The clause that assigned blame for the war to Germany offended the national sense of honor. Reparations were viewed as a crippling burden on the country's future.
Rejection of New Borders: The German public did not accept the new territorial boundaries, hoping to someday revise the eastern frontier, reclaim the Polish corridor, and unify with German-speaking Austria.
French Security Concerns
Fear of German Resurgence: France was apprehensive about the potential recovery of Germany. Efforts to secure their own safety and collective European security had mixed success.
Disappointments for France: They were unable to detach the Rhineland from Germany, and the U.S. Senate refused to ratify the treaty signed at Paris, which would have guaranteed France against future German invasion.
Allied Isolationism: Both Britain and the U.S. were turning toward isolationism, focusing on economic recovery and trade rather than European security. The League of Nations, with its limited power and U.S. absence, offered little assurance to France.
Reparations and Alliances
Reparations Set at 132 Billion Gold Marks (1921): This amount was considered unpayable by many economists, including non-Germans. France insisted on these payments as part of its security strategy.
French Alliances: To counter a potentially resurgent Germany, France formed alliances with Eastern European states such as Poland and Czechoslovakia.
The Weimar Government and the Soviet Union
Seeking Alternatives: The Weimar government turned to the Soviet Union, which was not involved in the Treaty of Versailles and did not demand reparations from Germany.
Treaty of Rapallo (1922): Despite ideological differences, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Treaty of Rapallo, re-establishing diplomatic relations. The agreement allowed Germany to obtain needed goods from the Soviet Union, while Soviet factories and workers benefited from German manufacturing.
Key Challenges for the Weimar Republic
Internal Struggles: The Weimar Republic faced pressure from both the burdens of reparations and the lack of widespread acceptance of the democratic system.
External Alliances and Security Concerns: France's efforts to form alliances and insist on reparations highlighted the ongoing tensions and mistrust in Europe regarding Germany's future role.
German-Soviet Relations and Military Training
Cooperation with the Soviet Union: German factories fulfilled Soviet orders, while the German military sent officers and technicians to train the Red Army.
Circumventing Versailles Restrictions: The Treaty of Versailles limited the German army's activities, but they maintained high military standards through clandestine efforts, including training in Russia.
Reparations and the Ruhr Occupation (1923)
French and Belgian Occupation of the Ruhr: In an effort to force Germany to pay reparations, French and Belgian troops occupied the industrial Ruhr valley.
German Response: Germans engaged in general strikes and passive resistance, with the Weimar government supporting workers by printing money to pay benefits.
The Hyperinflation Crisis (1923)
Inflation Catastrophe: Inflation reached disastrous levels, with the value of paper money collapsing. By late 1923, it took over 4 trillion marks to equal one U.S. dollar.
Social Consequences: The hyperinflation caused severe social upheaval, hitting the middle class hardest. Debts were paid off with worthless currency, and savings became valueless.
Middle-Class Disillusionment: The economic collapse led to a loss of faith in society and traditional values. Many middle-class citizens, though financially reduced to the level of workers, could not accept Marxist or socialist ideologies.
Economic Recovery Efforts
Debt Wipeout and New Economic Start: Hyperinflation effectively eliminated outstanding debts, allowing for a fresh economic start after losses were accepted.
The Dawes Plan (1924): Named after American Charles G. Dawes, the plan aimed to stabilize Germany's economy and ensure reparations payments. It involved:
Reducing the reparations burden.
Securing foreign loans, especially from American private investors.
Evacuation of French troops from the Ruhr.
The Role of the United States
Interconnected Debt Payments: The U.S. demanded payment of war debts from the Allies, who in turn needed reparations from Germany to fulfill their obligations.
American Investments: Significant U.S. private capital flowed into Germany, boosting the economy through government bonds and industrial investments.
Temporary Prosperity and Underlying Fragility
Weimar Economic Growth: From 1924 to 1929, the Weimar Republic experienced economic growth, with new construction projects and increased industrial activity.
Dependence on Foreign Loans: The apparent prosperity was largely based on foreign capital, making the economy vulnerable.
Impact of the Great Depression (1929): The onset of the global economic crisis reignited unresolved economic problems, challenging the stability of the Weimar Republic.
Economic Prosperity and International Calm
Relative Stability: The years following the Dawes Plan saw economic growth and relative international calm in Europe.
Unresolved Issues: Despite economic progress, the fundamental issues from the Treaty of Versailles remained unaddressed, particularly the deep-seated German resentment.
German Discontent with the Treaty of Versailles
Universal German Hatred: The Treaty of Versailles was widely despised in Germany, with no significant concessions from the Allies.
Potential for Concessions: Some believed that amending the treaty might have weakened nationalist movements in Germany, although it is uncertain if any concessions would have sufficed to appease German grievances.
Eastern Europe and Border Disputes: The Germans viewed the new borders in Eastern Europe as temporary and open for future revision.
Influential Figures and Diplomacy
Moderate Leadership: Key leaders like Gustav Stresemann in Germany, Édouard Herriot and Aristide Briand in France, and Ramsay MacDonald in England influenced foreign policy toward peace and diplomacy.
Role of the League of Nations: While not expected to prevent wars between Great Powers, the League served as a platform for negotiation and helped resolve minor disputes in the 1920s.
The Locarno Treaties (1925)
Peak of International Goodwill: The Locarno agreements represented the high point of international cooperation between the two World Wars.
Germany’s Agreements:
Signed treaties with France and Belgium, unconditionally guaranteeing their borders.
Entered arbitration treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia, agreeing to pursue border changes through discussion, not force.
France’s Security Measures:
Signed treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia, promising military support if they were attacked by Germany.
Supported the Little Entente (Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Romania) to balance German power in Eastern Europe.
British Guarantees:
The UK guaranteed the borders of France and Belgium but did not extend the same assurance to Poland or Czechoslovakia.
British policy prioritized preventing German expansion westward over involvement in Eastern European conflicts.
The Impact and Limitations of Locarno
Missed Opportunities: If Britain had guaranteed the borders of Poland and Czechoslovakia, it might have deterred German aggression leading to World War II.
Complexity of Preventing War: Preventing conflict involved many decisions, not just a single treaty or policy.
The Pact of Paris (Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928)
Reinforcing International Harmony: The pact, signed by 65 nations, condemned the use of war as a means to resolve disputes.
Lack of Enforcement Mechanisms: Although the pact was a symbolic commitment to peace, it included no enforcement provisions, limiting its practical impact.
The Hopeful Outlook of the Mid-1920s
Locarno Treaties and German Acceptance (1925): Germany voluntarily accepted its borders as set by the Treaty of Versailles, including the eastern and western frontiers, agreeing to renounce violence and unilateral action.
Germany Joins the League of Nations (1926): This move was a significant step towards international integration and acceptance as a peaceful, democratic nation.
Democratic Progress in Eastern Europe: Democracy seemed to be working reasonably well in the new states of Eastern Europe.
Communist Russia's Halted Offensive: The Soviet Union paused its revolutionary efforts post-World War I, leading to a more stable international environment.
Economic Prosperity: The global economy was thriving, with production levels exceeding those from before World War I. By 1925, world production of raw materials was 17% higher than in 1913.
Increased World Trade: By 1929, global trade, measured in gold, had almost doubled compared to 1913 levels.
Optimism About Peace and Democracy: There was a prevailing belief that democracy had finally been secured, and the horrors of war were a thing of the past.
Shattered Complacency
The Great Depression's Impact: The onset of the global economic crisis disrupted the optimistic outlook of the 1920s.
Rise of Nationalism in Germany: The economic hardships of the depression fueled the growth of radical nationalism, particularly in Germany.
Militancy in Japan: Japan also became more assertive and militaristic, influenced by the global economic downturn.
Anti-Imperialist Movements in Asia
Resentment Towards European Imperialism: Asians increasingly condemned European imperialism, which had subjugated their countries during the 19th century.
Colonies and Nominally Independent States:
Colonies: Countries like British India, the Netherlands Indies, and French Indochina resented European dominance over government offices and economic resources.
Nominally Independent States: Countries like China, Persia, and the Ottoman Empire objected to European privileges, such as control over customs revenues, extraterritorial rights, and spheres of influence.
Imperialism as Exploitation: Asians viewed imperialism as a system where their countries' resources and labor were exploited for the benefit of foreign powers.
Absentee Capitalism: Plantations, docks, and factories were owned by foreigners who were primarily interested in profits rather than the well-being of the local population.
Threat to Native Cultures: The spread of Western culture was seen as a threat to traditional Asian civilizations.
Racial Discrimination and Inequality:
Europeans maintained an attitude of superiority and drew racial lines, particularly the British and Americans.
There were visible signs of racial hierarchy, such as exclusive clubs where locals were not admitted.
Political and Historical Terms
Weimar Republic – The democratic government established in Germany from 1919 to 1933.
Social Democrats – A major political party in Germany advocating for moderate socialism and democracy.
Spartacists – A revolutionary socialist group in Germany that attempted a communist uprising in 1919.
Kapp Putsch – A right-wing coup attempt in 1920 aimed at overthrowing the Weimar Republic.
Treaty of Versailles – The peace treaty that ended World War I, imposing harsh terms on Germany.
League of Nations – An international organization established after World War I to maintain peace.
Little Entente – An alliance of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Romania aimed at containing German and Hungarian influence.
Economic Terms
Reparations – Payments that Germany was required to make to the Allies after World War I.
Hyperinflation (1923) – The period of extreme inflation in Germany, where the value of the currency collapsed.
Dawes Plan (1924) – A plan to restructure German reparations and stabilize its economy through foreign loans.
Absentee Capitalism – Economic exploitation by foreign owners who manage resources or businesses from afar.
Great Depression – A global economic downturn starting in 1929 that had severe impacts on Germany and other countries.
International Agreements and Policies
Locarno Treaties (1925) – Agreements aimed at ensuring peace in Europe, with Germany accepting its borders.
Spirit of Locarno – The optimistic atmosphere of international cooperation and peace following the Locarno Treaties.
Treaty of Rapallo (1922) – An agreement between Germany and the Soviet Union that normalized relations and provided mutual economic benefits.
Kellogg-Briand Pact (Pact of Paris, 1928) – An international treaty condemning the use of war to resolve disputes.
Geographic and Territorial Terms
Polish Corridor – The territory separating East Prussia from the rest of Germany, created by the Treaty of Versailles.
Ruhr Valley – An industrial region in Germany occupied by French and Belgian troops in 1923 to enforce reparations payments.
East Elbian Junkers – Landowners in eastern Germany whose estates remained untouched by Weimar-era reforms.
Ideological Terms
Marxism – The socialist ideology advocating for a classless society, which influenced the Social Democrats.
Nationalism – The political ideology advocating for national independence and pride, which grew in Germany after the Great Depression.
Anti-Imperialism – The opposition to colonial rule and foreign exploitation, especially in Asia.
Militant Nationalism – The aggressive form of nationalism that arose in Germany and Japan during economic crises.
Social and Cultural Terms
Bourgeoisie – The middle class, particularly affected by hyperinflation in Germany.
Racial Discrimination – The systemic inequality and exclusion experienced by non-Europeans under imperialist rule.