Notes on Self: Philosophical, Sociological, and Psychological Perspectives

The Self from Various Perspectives

End-of-lesson objectives

• State the importance of understanding one’s self.
• Explain the various notions of the self from different philosophical perspectives.
• Examine one’s self in relation to the philosophical perspectives of the self.

Overview: The self as a holistic person

• The philosophy of man includes the self and its ultimate reason for being; it is a comprehensive study of truth.
• The human nature of man comprises multiple components that are unified and harmonized in the self: physical, intellectual, moral, social, political, religious, aesthetic, sensual, sexual, and economic.
• The self is the whole person taken in totality; it is imbued with reason, free will, and responsibility.
• Fully developed, the self yields a many-splendored creation through philosophy; therefore, different conceptions of what it means to be human arise.

What is Philosophy?

• Etymology: philosophy comes from two Greek words philos (love) and sophia (wisdom); a philosopher is a "lover of wisdom".
• Wisdom connotes knowledge—knowledge directed to fundamental and pervasive concerns of existence.
• In philosophy, wisdom is about helping oneself think more clearly, precisely, and systematically.
• It investigates normal and fundamental issues concerning existence, presence, information, values, reason, psyche, and dialect.

Who am I? (The self in philosophical inquiry)

• Much of philosophy concerns the fundamental nature of the "self".

Six orientations of thinking (Pre-Socratic to early modern)

1) Rationalism – reason as the chief source and test of knowledge.

• Philosophers: Socrates, Plato, Immanuel Kant, René Descartes.
  2) Skepticism – a questioning attitude that doubts and does not accept ideas immediately.
• Philosophers: Socrates, David Hume.
  3) Empiricism – all knowledge comes from sensory experience.
• Philosophers: Aristotle, John Locke, David Hume, Gilbert Ryle, Paul Churchland, Maurice Merleau-Ponty.
  4) Idealism – reality is based on ideas, perceptions, or consciousness rather than physical matter.
• Philosophers: Socrates, Plato.
  5) Platonism – doctrines derived from Plato; often associated with an enduring realm of forms.
• Philosopher: Plato.
  6) Existentialism – emphasizes personal experience and responsibility in human existence.
• Philosopher: Maurice Merleau-Ponty.

Ten philosophers to study

• Socrates
• Plato
• St. Augustine
• René Descartes
• John Locke
• David Hume
• Immanuel Kant
• Gilbert Ryle
• Maurice Merleau-Ponty
• Paul Churchland

1) Socrates (469–399 BCE)

• Core idea: "The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing."

• Contributions:

  • The Socratic Method / Dialectic: a method of inquiry relying on questions to stimulate critical thinking.
  • Two processes: ironic (clearing the mind, admitting ignorance) and maieutic (guiding the learner to discover truth through questions).

• View of the self:

  • Dualistic: body and soul; the body is imperfect and temporary, the soul is perfect and permanent.
  • The duty of the philosopher is self-knowledge; to live without knowing oneself is the worst fate.

• Self and education:

  • Emphasized the importance of self-examination and virtue.

2) Plato (428–347 BCE)

• The soul has three parts:
  1) Appetitive soul (desires and cravings),
  2) Rational soul (thinking, judging),
  3) Spirited soul (emotions).
• The Republic: all three parts must work harmoniously; the rational soul should govern, the spirited and appetitive parts subdued when needed, to attain justice and virtue.
• Self-body-soul relationship: the soul governs the body, aiming for a life oriented toward life-sustaining activity and virtue.

3) St. Augustine (354–430 CE)

• Duality: imperfect, material body bound to the world and immortal soul seeking divine union.
• The body’s imperfection limits spiritual communion with God; virtue enables the soul to rise toward the eternal realm.
• The concept of self emerges from the interplay between the soul and God, with virtue as a bridge to the divine.

4) René Descartes (1596–1650)

• Key claim: doubt leads to the certainty of the self; the only thing indubitable is the existence of the thinking self: ext{Cogito ergo sum}.
• Dualism: two distinct entities
  • Cogito ergo sum: the mind (the thinking self).
  • Extenza: the body, the extended substance.
• The self is a combination of mind and body; the mind can be certain while the body is dubitable.

5) John Locke (1632–1704)

• Personal identity depends on consciousness, not substance or the soul.
• The self is formed by a blank slate (tabula rasa) at birth and is shaped by experiences and conscious memory.
• Consciousness as internal sense: it marks identity via memory and awareness of one’s own mental states rather than physical or spatio-temporal properties.

6) David Hume (1711–1776)

• The self is not a distinct entity; it is a bundle of changing experiences.

• The self is not fixed or unchanging; it flows like a stream of thoughts and sensations.

• The self is known through impressions (real experiences) and ideas (copies of impressions).

• Knowledge of others comes from observable words, actions, and behaviors rather than an inner essence.

• Distinctions:

  • Impressions: actual sensations (e.g., pain from touching a stove).
  • Ideas: copies of impressions used in memory and reasoning.

7) Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)

• Reason as a foundation of knowledge, not just experience.
• The self organizes experiences into meaningful structures; it is not reducible to sensory input alone.
• Consciousness comprises inner and outer self:
  • Inner self: intellect and psychological state (soul).
  • Outer self: senses and physical body.
• The object of the inner self is the soul; the outer self is directed toward the body.

8) Gilbert Ryle (1900–1976)

• The mind and body are not separable phenomena; the self is revealed through observable behavior.
• Two collateral histories: public (body) and private (mind).
• The self is understood via actions, thoughts, feelings, and patterns of behavior; we infer someone’s mind from their conduct.

9) Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908–1961)

• The mind and body are intrinsically linked; we are our body and live through bodily experience.
• The body connects us to people, places, and experiences; perception is fundamentally embodied.

10) Paul Churchland (born 1942)

• Neurophilosophy and eliminative materialism: many traditional mental states (beliefs, desires, feelings) may not correspond to genuine mental states.
• Folk psychology is outdated; the brain operates via complex physical processes not yet fully understood.
• The mind as a brain-based system, challenging the primacy of common-sense mental states.

Synthesis: The ongoing debate about the self

• The dual perspective persists: traditional mind–body dualism coexists with embodied and brain-based views.
• Religious, philosophical, and scientific perspectives continue to influence each other; openness to new ideas helps in understanding the self.

Chapter 2: Sociological and Anthropological Perspectives on the Self

End-of-lesson objectives

• Explain the relationship of the self, society, and culture.
• Compare and contrast how social institutions and culture affect the formation of the self.
• Examine one’s “self” against the different perspectives in this lesson and the experiences of classmates.

Key ideas: Society, culture, and the self

• Humans are inherently social beings; we are shaped by social environments from birth to adulthood.
• Society: a group of people living in a specific area, sharing culture, and engaging in social relationships and institutions.
• Culture: the group’s way of life, including beliefs, values, norms, symbols, language, and material objects; divided into:
  • Material culture: clothing, tools, weapons, architecture, religious implements, etc.
  • Nonmaterial culture: beliefs, values, norms, language, symbols.
• Culture is socially transmitted through communication and imitation across generations.

Norms and values

• Norms: culture-specific rules that guide behavior in concrete situations.
• Values: ideal behaviors or principles that set standards for what is acceptable and admirable.
• Distinction: norms dictate actions; values guide judgments of what is desirable.
• Examples:
  • Pagmamano (hand-kissing) demonstrates respect; norm reflects value of respect.
  • Witnessing an accident: norms require helping others; value is consideration and helpfulness.

Socialization and enculturation

• Socialization/Enculturation: lifelong processes of learning and internalizing a society’s culture and norms.
• Through socialization, individuals acquire status and roles within a social structure.

Status and roles

• Status: a position in society with expected roles and norms; can be ascribed (inherited) or achieved (earned).
  • Ascribed example: prince.
  • Achieved example: class president.
• Roles: expected behaviors, norms, values, and attitudes associated with a status.

Social institutions (eight major forms)

1. Kinship/Family – foundational social unit; based on blood (consanguineal), marriage (affinal), or social inclusion.
2. Economics/Market – regulate resource flows; ensure fair prices and access to goods.
3. Politics/Government – enforce law and order; power is distributed across executive, legislative, judiciary with checks and balances; sovereignty rests with the people.
4. Education/School – goals include developing personality, critical thinking, social integration, knowledge transmission, and preparation for productive society members.
5. Religion/Church – belief in the supernatural; reasons include explanation of the unexplainable, meaning/purpose, and continuity after death; in the Philippines Catholic traditions are prominent.
6. Mass Media/Social Media – reach large audiences; can promote positive ideals or spread misinformation; influences self-concept through repeated exposure to ideals.
7. Health Services – organized system to maintain health; public health regulation and access influence well-being and social participation.
8. Recreation – organized leisure activities (leisure vs recreation vs sports) that satisfy the human desire for entertainment and self-expression.

Culture, power, and socialization in society

• Culture and personality: cultural patterns shape individual personalities; cultural determinism argues culture has a strong influence on behavior, values, and beliefs.
• Cultural relativism: no universal standard of humanity; norms and values are culture-specific.
• Socialization creates and reinforces the self through language, rituals, and institutions; the self emerges from social interactions and is shaped by cultural practices.

Theoretical approaches to the self in sociology and anthropology

• Symbolic Interactionism (George Herbert Mead): the self emerges from social interaction; three core ideas:
  1) The Social Construction of the Self: identity forms via interaction with family, culture, media, institutions, and experiences.
  2) Identity Requires Social Recognition: validation from others solidifies self-perception.
  3) Values and Priorities Are Based on Society: what one values is shaped by collective norms and trends.
• Culture and Personality: Benedict and Mead argued for cultural determinism and the role of culture in shaping personality; Culture influences which traits are emphasized.
• Cultural Determinism: the culture dictates norms and behaviors; no universal standard of being human.
• Clifford Geertz (interpretive anthropology): culture is a system of symbols and meanings; understanding lives through interpretation of symbols.
• Charles Horton Cooley (Looking-Glass Self): self-concept is formed via social reflection; three stages:
  1) Self-Perception: imagine how one appears to others;
  2) Imagined Judgment: imagine how others evaluate that appearance;
  3) Emotional Response: internalize judgments (pride, shame).
• Erving Goffman (dramaturgical analysis): social life as a stage; frontstage vs backstage behavior; face work and impression management describe how people control how others perceive them.

Implications for the self in social life

• The self is not fixed; it is continually constructed and reconstructed through social interactions, cultural meanings, and institutional contexts.
• Identity, self-concept, and self-esteem are dynamic and responsive to social comparisons and normative expectations.

Chapter 3: Psychological Perspectives on the Self

End-of-lesson objectives

• Enumerate the various psychological perspectives and concepts about the self.
• Analyze the effects of psychological factors in the formation of the self.
• Examine one’s self against the different psychological perspectives and peer experiences.

What is psychology?

• Psychology studies thought processes including memory, problem-solving, and decision-making from infancy through adulthood.
• It explores how genetics and experiences interact to shape perception, thinking, and development.
• Cognitive development areas include information processing, knowledge, reasoning, language development, and memory.
• Psychology often uses the term self interchangeably with related ideas; theories may focus on identity, roles, or inner experiences.

Core concepts in the psychology of the self

• Self-awareness: capacity to recognize and understand one’s thoughts, emotions, motivations, and behaviors.
  • Three self-schemas:
  • Actual Self: who you are now; traits, behaviors, abilities.
  • Ideal Self: who you wish to be; hopes and aspirations.
  • Ought Self: who you think you should be; duties/obligations.
• Self-concept and identity:
  • Identity: a person’s characteristics, social roles, responsibilities, and group affiliations; frames who one is.
  • Self-concept: the collection of attributes, traits, and ideas that come to mind when thinking about oneself.
  • Dynamic construction: neither identity nor self-concept is fixed; they shift with situational cues and motivations.
• I-self and Me-self (William James):
  • I-self (pure ego): the active thinker/knower; the subject.
  • Me-self (empirical self): the object of thought; physical, psychological, and social traits.
• Self-schemas (Hazel Rose Markus): organized cognitive structures storing self-related information; domains include personal traits, roles, demographics, interests, and group memberships. Schemata can change with experience and influence thoughts and feelings about others and the self.

The I-self and Me-self (William James)

• I-self: the active, thinking subject; the ongoing experience of being, knowing, and acting.
• Me-self: the objectified self; the qualities others can observe and reflect upon.
• Example: a student reflecting on growth from shy to leading a group presentation demonstrates shifts in I-self and Me-self.

Carl Rogers and humanistic psychology

• Key ideas: self-actualization, unconditional positive regard, and client-centered therapy.

• Self-actualization: becoming the best version of oneself; fully developing talents, values, and potential.

• Unconditional positive regard: accepting and valuing oneself and others without judgment.

• Rogers’ terminology: the "I" (the agent, the one who acts) and the "Me" (the self as object).

• Dynamic self: identity, self-concept, and their construction are fluid and context-dependent.

Identity, self-concept, and dynamic construction (Daphna Oyserman et al.)

• Identity comprises characteristics, social roles, responsibilities, and affiliations.
• Self-concept is the set of attributes invoked when thinking about oneself.
• Dynamic construction: identity and self-concept shift with situational cues, motivations, and demands; they are resilient but adaptable.

Self-schemas and examples (Hazel Rose Markus)

• Self-schemas are cognitive structures guiding self-related information processing.
• Key components:
  • Personal traits (e.g., creative, shy)
  • Social roles and achievements (e.g., student, athlete)
  • Demographics and physical attributes (e.g., age, height)
  • Interests and preferences (e.g., hobbies, subjects)
  • Names and group memberships (e.g., nationality, team)
• Schemata evolve with growth and experience; they shape how we perceive and relate to others.

Sigmund Freud and psychoanalytic perspectives

• Freud: Father of Psychoanalysis; highlighted hidden mental processes and the unconscious.
• He proposed three levels of consciousness:
  1) Id: unconscious, basic drives and needs; operates on the pleasure principle.
  2) Ego: mediates between id and reality; operates on the reality principle.
  3) Superego: internalized morals and societal norms; acts as a moral compass.
• Diagrammatic example:
  • Id seeks immediate gratification (e.g., “I need to eat right this second!”).
  • Ego negotiates within social constraints (e.g., “You can't do that because you're in the middle of an important meeting.”).
  • Superego enforces moral judgments (e.g., “Eating during an important meeting is rude and inappropriate.”).
• Nature and nurture: environment and biology both shape the self; a nature-and-nurture perspective integrates both.

Two types of self (Carver & Scheier)

• Private self: internal thoughts and feelings.
• Public self: how one presents oneself to others, aiming for a favorable public image.

Self-awareness, self-esteem, and social cognition

• Self-awareness can have positive or negative effects depending on context and action steps.

• Self-awareness can prevent dangerous actions or trigger deindividuation in crowds (loss of personal identity in group contexts).

• Self-esteem: personal positive or negative evaluation of oneself; influenced by social relationships and social comparison.

• Social Comparison Theory: we learn about ourselves by comparing with others; upward comparisons can inspire or threaten; downward comparisons can boost or inflate self-esteem.

• Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory: threats from others’ superior performance can lead to distancing, re-evaluation, or increased effort to improve.

• Narcissism: an excessive self-esteem, self-admiration, and self-centeredness; can be charismatic but may lead to problematic relationships.

• Research insights on self-esteem:

  • Correlation, not causation, between high self-esteem and positive outcomes.
  • High self-esteem can be associated with both positive traits (outgoing, adventurous) and negative outcomes (envy, aggression, risky behaviors).
  • Interventions to boost self-esteem should reward concrete achievements, not merely comfort mood.

Summary: Integrating psychological perspectives on the self

• The self is a multi-faceted construct shaped by cognition, emotion, social interaction, and culture.
• Stability and change coexist: core self-traits can be resilient while allowing growth through new experiences and social feedback.
• Contemporary psychology emphasizes the dynamic, contextual, and socially embedded nature of the self."