Formation of stereotypes

Confirmation bias: This is the tendency to pay attention to information that is in line with one's stereotypes.

Illusory correlation: the phenomenon of perceiving a relationship between variables even when no such relationship exists. A false association may be formed because rare or unusual occurrences are more salient and therefore tend to capture one's attention.

Out-group homogeneity bias: The tendency to assume that the members of other groups are very similar to each other, particularly in contrast to the assumed diversity of the membership of one’s own group.

Social categorization: The process by which people categorize themselves and others into groups. This simplifies and helps us make sense of our social world.

Stereotypes: a cognitive generalization about the qualities and characteristics of the members of a group. Stereotypes, like schemas, simplify perceptions and judgments, but they are often exaggerated, negative rather than positive, and resistant to change even when people encounter individuals with qualities that contradict the stereotype

Hamilton and Gifford

Aim: To investigate illusory correlation of group size and negative behaviour.

Procedure: Researchers asked participants to read descriptions about two made-up groups (Group A) and (Group B). Group A and Group B; A twice as big as B (26 vs 13); same ratio of good behaviour to bad behaviour in both groups (positive twice as common as negative) \n Descriptions were based on a number of positive and negative behaviours. \n Group A (majority group) - twice as many members than B; performed 18 positive and 8 negative behaviours. \n Group B (minority) - performed 9 positive and 4 negative behaviours. \n Participants were then asked how many of the people in each group had positive vs. negative traits.

Findings: They overestimated the number of negative traits in the minority group. Although there was no correlation between group membership and the types of behaviours exhibited by the groups, in that the proportion of negative and positive was the same for both groups, the participants did seem to have an illusory correlation. \n More of the undesirable behaviours were attributed to the minority Group B, than the majority of Group A.

Strengths: replicable and reliable, cause and effect can be established.

Limitations: low ecological validity

Rogers and Frantz

Aim: to study and assess the attitudes of white European settlers towards Africans based on how long they have been in an African community

Procedure:

• 500 europeans of age 20+ participated
• they had lived in Rhodesia for 5 (or less), or 40+ years
• they were given a questionary of 66 examples of segregation of the white and the local African group (such as divided bathrooms, lack of political representation, etc…)
  -they were given 4 choices

1. strongly agree
2. somewhat agree
3. somewhat disagree
4. strongly disagree

Findings:

• Europeans who support the status quo least were those who lived in southern Rhodesia for fewer than 5 years
• longer they lived there, more prejudice they became

Strengths: the sample was very large and highly representative. This means that it is highly likely that this could be generalized to the remaining members of this population without any problem.

Limitations: qualitative in nature, it is questionable to what extent this study could be transferred to other situations. One of the limitations of this study is that it was not longitudinal - it was cross-sectional. Therefore, the researchers cannot determine whether individuals' attitudes changed over time.

When discussing the formation of stereotypes, you may consider the following points:

• The difficulty of studying human cognition; we cannot observe what we cannot see. As a result, assumptions are made about the process.
• Much of the research is done under controlled conditions that are highly artificial. This makes it difficult to determine the extent to which this reflects what happens in real life.
• There are ethical considerations in "creating stereotypes" in children.  Although debriefing may be used to reduce the effects, there is concern about the long-term effects of inducing stereotypes about existing groups, especially in children.
• Many of the theories are rather simplistic.  In reality, there are most likely several factors involved in the creation of stereotypes.