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Unit 1: Foundations of American Government

• Natural Rights

  • Definition: Inherent freedoms (life, liberty, property)

  • Philosopher: John Locke

• Direct Democracy vs. Representative Democracy

  • Direct: Citizens vote on laws directly

  • Representative: Citizens elect representatives to make laws

• Articles of Confederation

  • Weaknesses: No power to tax or regulate trade, no executive or judicial branch

  • Shays’ Rebellion: Exposed the national government’s inability to maintain order

• Branches of Government

  • Legislative: Makes laws

  • Executive: Enforces laws

  • Judicial: Interprets laws

• Separation of Powers

  • Purpose: Prevent any branch from gaining too much power

• Checks and Balances

  • Definition: Each branch can limit the other branches

  • Examples:

    • Presidential veto

    • Senate approval of appointments

    • Judicial review

• Enumerated Powers

  • Powers explicitly granted to Congress (e.g., coin money, regulate interstate commerce)

• Elastic (Necessary and Proper) Clause

  • Allows Congress to make laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers

• Supremacy Clause

  • Constitution and federal laws are the supreme law of the land, overriding state laws

• Federalism

  • Division of power between the national and state governments

• Great Compromise

  • Bicameral legislature: House based on population, Senate with 2 per state

• Number in Congress & Who Sets It

  • 435 Representatives (set by law), 100 Senators (2 per state)

• Bill of Attainder

  • Legislative act declaring guilt without trial (prohibited)

• Ex Post Facto Law

  • Retroactively makes an act illegal or increases punishment (prohibited)

• Writ of Habeas Corpus

  • Requires bringing a detainee before a judge to justify detention

• Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists

  • Federalists: Supported stronger central government

  • Anti-Federalists: Wanted stronger state governments, insisted on a Bill of Rights

Unit 2: Institutions and Processes

• Census, Reapportionment, Redistricting

  • Census: Population count

  • Reapportionment: Redistribution of House seats based on Census

  • Redistricting: Redrawing congressional district lines

• Roles of President, Vice President, White House Staff

  • President: Chief Executive, Commander-in-Chief, and more

  • Vice President: Presides over Senate, next in line to President

  • White House Staff: Advisers managing policy and daily operations

• Qualifications

  • President: 35 years old, natural-born citizen

  • Senator: 30 years old, 9 years a citizen

  • Representative: 25 years old, 7 years a citizen

• Incumbent & Advantages

  • Current officeholder

  • Advantages include name recognition, fundraising, established networks

• Casework

  • Members of Congress helping constituents navigate government agencies

• Oversight

  • Congressional monitoring of the Executive Branch to ensure proper law implementation

• Bill Process in Congress

  1. Introduction

  2. Committee Review

  3. Floor Debate/Vote

  4. Conference Committee (if needed)

  5. Final Approval

  6. President’s Signature or Veto

• Conference Committee

  • Joint committee resolving differences in House/Senate bill versions

• War Powers Act

  • President must notify Congress within 48 hours of troop deployment

  • Limit of 60 days unless extended by Congress

• Executive Agreements and Executive Orders

  • Agreements with other countries not needing Senate approval

  • Orders issued by the President with force of law

• District Courts

  • Original jurisdiction at the federal level (first to hear a case)

• Appellate Jurisdiction & Dual Court System

  • Appellate: Higher courts review lower court decisions

  • Dual Court System: Federal and state courts operate separately

• Types of Opinions (Supreme Court)

  • Majority: Official ruling

  • Concurring: Agrees with outcome but offers different reasoning

  • Dissenting: Disagrees with the majority

• Impeachment Process

  • House votes to impeach (simple majority)

  • Senate holds trial (2/3 vote to convict/remove)

• Amendment Process

  • Proposal: 2/3 of both houses of Congress or 2/3 of states

  • Ratification: 3/4 of state legislatures or conventions

Unit 3: Civil Liberties & Civil Rights

• Civil Liberties vs. Civil Rights

  • Liberties: Protections from government interference (e.g., free speech)

  • Rights: Protections from discrimination, ensuring equal treatment

Unit 4: Political Behavior & Mass Media

• Political Socialization & Political Ideology

  • Socialization: How people develop political beliefs/values

  • Ideology: Set of beliefs about politics/policy

• Divided Government

  • Presidency held by one party, and one/both houses of Congress held by another

• Role of Third Parties

  • Introduce new ideas, can influence major parties’ platforms

• Interest Groups & Lobbying

  • Organizations seeking policy influence

  • Lobbying: Direct contact, grassroots campaigns, litigation

• PACs (Political Action Committees)

  • Raise and spend money on candidates’ behalf, subject to contribution limits

• Primary & Caucus / National Convention

  • Primary or Caucus: Methods to choose a party’s candidate

  • National Convention: Formal nomination and platform approval

• Presidential Campaign Strategy

  • Target swing states, fundraise, utilize media and debates

• Straight Ticket vs. Split Ticket Voting

  • Straight: Voting for one party across all races

  • Split: Choosing candidates from different parties

• Plurality & Winner-Takes-All System

  • Plurality: Candidate with most votes wins

  • Winner-takes-all: The top vote-getter in a state/district gets all electoral votes/seats

• Electoral College

  • 270 votes needed to win

  • If no majority, House decides the President

• Agenda Setting by Media

  • Media’s power to determine which issues become major public concerns

• Margin of Error

  • Statistical measure of polling accuracy (lower margin = more reliable)

Unit 5: Public Policy

• Public Policy Process

  1. Identify problems

  2. Formulate policy solutions

  3. Adopt/legitimize policy

  4. Implement policy

  5. Evaluate results

  6. Revise as needed

Key Amendments to Know

• Amendment 1

  • Protects freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, petition

• Amendment 10

  • Powers not given to the federal government are reserved for states or the people

• Amendment 14

  • Defines citizenship; guarantees due process and equal protection

• Amendment 15

  • Voting rights cannot be denied based on race or former servitude

• Amendment 19

  • Grants women the right to vote

• Amendment 20

  • Sets start/end dates of presidential and congressional terms (lame duck)

• Amendment 24

  • Prohibits poll taxes in federal elections

• Amendment 26

  • Lowers the voting age from 21 to 18