Passage Identification Questions (15 points each; 60 points total)

For this section of the midterm, you will read 4 different passages and do the following: 

• identify the title of the text 

• identify the author of the text 

• identify the time period in which the text was written 

• provide context for the passage

• discuss why the passage is important to the overall text

The Iliad

Author: Homer

Time period: Set towards the end of the Trojan War (composed in the 8th century BCE during the Archaic Period of Greece)

Major themes:

1. Honor/glory; The pursuit of personal honor and glory is a driving force for the characters, particularly for warriors who seek to achieve kleos (fame) through heroic deeds.

   1. Achilles withdraws from battle after Agamemnon takes his prize, Briseis, feeling that his honor has been insulted, demonstrating how honor dictates his actions throughout the epic

2. Fate/free will; The tension between predetermined fate and the characters' choices highlights the struggle between divine influence and individual agency

   1. Despite knowing his fate to die young but achieve great glory, Achilles chooses to fight rather than return home, illustrating how he exercises his free will within the constraints of fate

3. Divine intervention; The gods frequently intervene in mortal affairs, influencing battles and personal decisions, reflecting their power and the belief in divine influence over human lives.

   1. Apollo sends a plague to the Greek camp in response to Chryses' prayer, which leads to Agamemnon's conflict with Achilles and sets off a chain of events central to the plot

4. Mortality; The awareness of mortality permeates the narrative, emphasizing the tragic nature of war and the fleeting nature of life.

   1. The deaths of numerous warriors are depicted throughout the epic, often accompanied by reflections on their lives and families, underscoring the tragedy of lost potential and the inevitability of death

5. Anger/revenge; Anger, particularly Achilles' rage, serves as a catalyst for much of the action in the epic, leading to significant consequences for both individuals and armies.

   1. Achilles' anger at Agamemnon leads him to refuse battle, which shifts the tide in favor of the Trojans until Patroclus' death prompts him to rejoin the fight out of vengeance

Key characters:

Greeks/Achaeans

1. Achilles: The central character, a prince of Phthia and the greatest warrior of the Greeks. He is known for his unparalleled fighting prowess and his powerful emotions, particularly his rage and grief

2. Agamemnon: King of Mycenae and the commander-in-chief of the Greek forces. Arrogant and often selfish, his actions, particularly taking Achilles' war prize Briseis, drive much of the plot

3. Odysseus: King of Ithaca, known for his cunning and persuasive language. He plays a crucial role in counseling and supporting Agamemnon

4. Patroclus: Achilles' closest friend and one of the commanders of the Myrmidons. His death at the hands of Hector is a pivotal moment in the epic (sparks extreme rage in Achilles)

5. Menelaus: King of Sparta, Agamemnon's brother, and the husband of Helen, whose abduction by Paris sparked the Trojan War

6. Great Ajax (Telamonian Ajax): Commander of the contingent from Salamis, known for his size and strength. He is the second-greatest warrior among the Greeks

7. Calchas: A prophet who identifies the cause of the plague in the Greek camp and provides crucial advice

8. Antinous: The leader of Penelope's suitors, known for his arrogance and eventual demise at Odysseus's hands

9. Briseis: A captive woman given to Achilles as a war prize but taken by Agamemnon, leading to Achilles' rage

10. Chryseis: Daughter of Chryses, a priest of Apollo, whose capture by Agamemnon leads to Apollo's curse on the Greeks

Trojans

1. Hector: The eldest prince of Troy, a brave warrior, and a thoughtful leader. He is a devoted husband and father

2. Paris (Alexander): A son of Priam and Hecuba, known for abducting Helen and sparking the Trojan War. He is often depicted as self-centered and unmanly

3. Andromache: Hector's wife and the mother of Astyanax, known for her love and concern for Hector's safety

4. Polydamas: A young Trojan commander who provides wise advice to Hector, though Hector does not always follow it

Gods

1. Zeus: Often intervenes in the war but tries to maintain balance between the Greeks and Trojans

2. Hera: The queen of the gods and Zeus's wife, who strongly supports the Greeks and despises the Trojans

3. Athena: The goddess of wisdom and war, who supports the Greeks, particularly Odysseus and Diomedes

4. Apollo: The god of the sun, music, and prophecy, who supports the Trojans and is involved in key events such as the plague and Patroclus's death

5. Hephaestus: The god of fire and forges, known for his craftsmanship and for helping the Achaeans by forging armor for Achilles

6. Thetis: Achilles' mother, a sea goddess who intervenes on his behalf and procures new armor for him from Hephaestus

Basic context/information:

An epic poem set during the final weeks of the Trojan War, a ten-year siege of the city of Troy by a coalition of Greek states, primarily led by Agamemnon and Achilles. The narrative begins in medias res, focusing on the wrath of Achilles after Agamemnon dishonors him by taking his war prize, Briseis. This conflict leads to significant consequences for both the Greeks and Trojans, including the death of Achilles' close friend Patroclus, which ultimately drives Achilles back into battle seeking revenge against Hector, the Trojan prince. The poem explores themes of honor, fate, divine intervention, and the human cost of war, concluding with the poignant moment of King Priam's plea for Hector's body to be returned for proper burial, highlighting the cycle of grief and loss inherent in warfare.

The Odyssey

Author: Homer

Time period: The events of the Odyssey take place after the Trojan War

Major themes:

1. Homecoming; The central theme of Odysseus's journey back home to Ithaca, driven by his longing for his family and home

   1. Throughout the epic, Odysseus faces numerous challenges, but his ultimate goal remains to reunite with his wife Penelope and son Telemachus, highlighting his determination to return home despite the obstacles.

2. Hospitality; The importance of treating guests with respect and kindness, as well as the consequences of violating this custom. Examples include the Phaeacians, Calypso, and the contrast with the Cyclops and Circe

   1. The Phaeacians, particularly King Alcinous, demonstrate exemplary hospitality by welcoming Odysseus, providing him food, shelter, and safe passage home, in contrast to the inhospitable treatment he receives from Polyphemus the Cyclops.

3. Loyalty; The devotion to family, friends, and home, as seen in Odysseus's determination to return home and the loyalty of Penelope and Telemachus; also seen with Odysseus’s crew

   1. Penelope remains loyal to Odysseus throughout his absence, fending off suitors and maintaining hope for his return, while Telemachus embarks on a journey to find news of his father.

4. Fate/free will; The roles of destiny, divine intervention, and human actions in shaping the characters' lives. Odysseus's choices and the gods' interventions are central to this theme, also explores themes of piety, respect, and the consequences of offending the gods.

   1. While Odysseus is fated to return home eventually, he makes critical choices—such as revealing his identity to Polyphemus—that affect the duration and nature of his journey.

5. Cunning/intellect; Odysseus's reliance on his wit and strategic thinking to overcome challenges, contrasting with the brute strength often associated with heroes

   1. In the encounter with Polyphemus, Odysseus cleverly tells the Cyclops that his name is "Nobody," allowing him to escape after blinding him; this showcases how intellect triumphs over physical might.

Key characters:

1. Odysseus: The protagonist, a king of Ithaca who embarks on a long and challenging journey home after the Trojan War

2. Telemachus: Odysseus's son, who plays a crucial role in supporting his father and defending their home against suitors

3. Penelope: Odysseus's wife, known for her loyalty and cleverness in managing the suitors while awaiting her husband's return

4. Athena: The goddess of wisdom and war, who assists Odysseus throughout his journey

5. Poseidon: The god of the sea, who opposes Odysseus due to his blinding of the Cyclops Polyphemus, Poseidon's son

6. Calypso: A beautiful nymph who holds Odysseus captive for seven years on the island of Ogygia

7. Circe: A goddess who transforms Odysseus's crew into pigs and later becomes his lover, providing him with advice for his journey

8. Antinous: The leader of Penelope's suitors, known for his arrogance and eventual demise at Odysseus's hands

Basic context/information:

The Odyssey tells the story of Odysseus's ten-year journey home to Ithaca after the Trojan War. During this time, he faces numerous challenges, including encounters with mythical creatures, gods, and other obstacles. Meanwhile, his home is threatened by suitors vying for his wife's hand in marriage

Timeline:

Trojan War (10 years): Odysseus fights in the Trojan War, which ends with the Greeks' victory and the fall of Troy.

Ismarus (Cicones): After leaving Troy, Odysseus and his men raid the Cicones but are attacked and forced to flee, losing several men.

Lotus Eaters: They encounter the Lotus Eaters, where some crew members eat the enchanted lotus and forget their desire to return home.

Cyclops (Polyphemus): Odysseus and his men are captured by the Cyclops Polyphemus; they escape by blinding him and hiding under his sheep.

Aeolia: The wind god Aeolus gives Odysseus a bag of winds to help him sail home, but his crew opens it out of greed, blowing them off course.

Laestrygonians: They encounter the Laestrygonians, giant cannibals who destroy most of Odysseus's ships and kill many of his men.

Circe: On Circe's island, she turns some of his men into pigs; with Hermes' help, Odysseus resists her magic and stays for a year.

Underworld: Odysseus journeys to the Underworld to seek advice from the prophet Teiresias about how to return home.

Sirens: He encounters the Sirens, whose song lures sailors to their doom; he has his men plug their ears while he listens tied to the mast.

Scylla and Charybdis: Odysseus navigates between Scylla, a six-headed monster, and Charybdis, a deadly whirlpool, losing more men.

Helios' Cattle: On Thrinacia, his crew disobeys him and eats the sacred cattle of Helios; Zeus punishes them with a storm that destroys their ship.

Calypso (7 years): Odysseus washes ashore on Calypso's island, where she keeps him captive for seven years until Hermes intervenes.

Phaeacia: After leaving Calypso, Odysseus arrives at Phaeacia, where he is welcomed by Nausicaa and recounts his adventures to King Alcinous.

Return to Ithaca: The Phaeacians help him return home; he arrives disguised as a beggar.

Reunion with Telemachus: He reunites with his son Telemachus and devises a plan to deal with the suitors in his home.

Defeat of Suitors: Odysseus reveals his identity, wins a contest involving his bow, and kills the suitors who have overrun his household.

Reunion with Penelope: After proving himself to Penelope, they are joyfully reunited.

Aeneid

Author: Virgil

Time period: Set in the mythical aftermath of the Trojan War

Major themes:

1. Fate and Divine Will; Fate governs Aeneas' journey to establish Rome, emphasizing the inevitability of his mission despite challenges, reflecting the idea of destiny being unchangeable, even by the gods.

   1. Jupiter assures Venus in Book 1 that Aeneas is destined to found Rome, showing that fate is preordained and will unfold despite obstacles or opposition.

2. Piety and Duty (Pietas); Aeneas embodies pietas, prioritizing duty to the gods, his people, and his mission over personal desires, demonstrating the Roman ideal of self-sacrifice for the greater good.

   1. Aeneas leaves Dido in Book 4 despite his love for her because his duty to the gods and his mission to establish Rome takes precedence.

3. War and Suffering; The poem portrays war's glory and devastation, exploring themes of heroism and human suffering, particularly in Aeneas' battles and the fall of Troy, illustrating the cost of empire-building.

   1. The vivid description of the fall of Troy in Book 2 illustrates the devastating human cost of war, from the destruction of the city to the loss of lives and homes.

4. Leadership and Legacy; Aeneas' journey reflects the burdens of leadership and the tension between personal sacrifice and the pursuit of a greater legacy, symbolizing the founding of Rome and its empire.

   1. In Book 6, Anchises shows Aeneas the future leaders of Rome in the Underworld, reminding him of the immense legacy he is destined to create through his actions.

5. Divine Intervention and Human Agency; The gods frequently influence events, showcasing the tension between divine manipulation and human effort, while also reflecting Roman beliefs about the gods' role in their destiny.

   1. Juno’s relentless interference, such as inciting the storm in Book 1 and later sparking conflict in Italy, demonstrates the gods' influence while testing Aeneas' resolve and resourcefulness.

6. Exile and Wandering; Aeneas and his followers endure exile, symbolizing perseverance through displacement and hardship, a metaphor for Rome’s eventual rise from chaos to order.

   1. Aeneas and his followers, after fleeing Troy, wander across the Mediterranean in search of their destined homeland, enduring physical and emotional hardships along the way.

Key characters:

1. Aeneas: The hero of the epic and a symbol of pietas (duty), destined to found Rome.

2. Anchises: Aeneas' father, representing wisdom and tradition; guides Aeneas in the Underworld (Book 6).

3. Dido: Queen of Carthage who falls in love with Aeneas; her abandonment and tragic death foreshadow future enmity between Rome and Carthage.

4. Juno: The queen of the gods and antagonist of Aeneas. She opposes him due to her lingering anger over the Trojan War and her favoritism for Carthage.

5. Venus: Aeneas’ mother and goddess of love, who protects and aids him throughout his journey, reflecting divine favor for Rome's destiny.

6. Turnus: The leader of the Rutulians and Aeneas’ rival in Italy. He embodies resistance to fate and serves as a tragic foil to Aeneas.

7. Lavinia: Daughter of King Latinus and Aeneas’ destined wife, symbolizing the union of Trojan and Italian peoples leading to the Roman race.

8. Iulus: Aeneas’ young son, symbolizing the future of the Trojan lineage and a link to Rome’s eventual founding.

Basic context/information:

An epic poem that tells the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero who, after Troy's fall, journeys to find a new homeland, destined to found Rome. The poem is structured into 12 books: the first half follows Aeneas’ travels and time in Carthage, while the second half focuses on his arrival in Italy and war with local tribes, especially Turnus.

Key themes include fate, duty, war, and sacrifice, showcasing Aeneas’ commitment to his divine mission despite personal losses. Written during Augustus' reign, it glorifies Rome's origins and aligns Augustus with Rome’s destiny. The Aeneid celebrates Roman values and has had a lasting influence on Western literature and culture.

Confessions

Author: St. Augustine

Time period: Written between 397 and 400 CE, during the late Roman Empire, a period marked by the spread of Christianity and its establishment as a dominant force in the Roman world—Written during the period when Augustine was a bishop in Hippo (modern-day Annaba, Algeria) in North Africa.

Major themes:

1. Sin and Redemption: Augustine’s narrative examines his struggles with sin and the transformative power of divine grace.

   1. Augustine details his journey from a life of sin to redemption, highlighting the transformative power of divine grace. He emphasizes that true salvation requires God’s help, not just human effort.

2. Search for Truth; The text reflects Augustine's quest for understanding, moving from Manichaeism to Neoplatonism before finally embracing Christianity.

   1. Augustine’s quest for truth leads him through various beliefs, including Manichaeism and Neoplatonism, before he finds it in Christianity. This search underscores that true understanding comes from spiritual rather than material realms.

3. Divine Providence; The idea that God’s hand guides human life and that events, even those that appear negative, serve a greater divine purpose.

   1. Augustine reflects on how God’s will governs all events, even suffering and mistakes, directing them toward a greater good. He believes that everything in his life, both good and bad, was part of God’s plan leading him to faith.

4. The Nature of Time; In Book 11, Augustine reflects on the concept of time, exploring its relationship with eternity and God’s creation.

   1. In Book 11, Augustine discusses time, noting that only the present exists, while past and future are mental constructs. He contrasts this with God’s eternal existence, showing that divine time is beyond human understanding.

Key characters:

1. St. Augustine: The author and main character, whose personal journey from a sinful life to Christian faith is chronicled.

2. Monica: Augustine’s mother, whose prayers and influence were instrumental in his conversion.

3. Adeodatus: Augustine’s son, born out of wedlock, representing both his past sins and his hope for redemption.

4. Ambrose of Milan: The influential bishop whose teachings helped guide Augustine toward Christianity.

Basic context/information:

It is a seminal text in Christian literature and theology, reflecting Augustine’s personal journey from a life of sin to his conversion to Christianity and baptism. The book is structured as a prayer to God and is both an account of Augustine’s life and a deep philosophical and theological reflection.

Book 1: Augustine’s early life and struggles with sin, particularly his rebellion against God and his mother’s efforts to guide him spiritually.

Book 3: His pursuit of truth through Manichaeism and his growing dissatisfaction with it, leading to his encounter with Neoplatonism, which influenced his understanding of spiritual truth.

Book 5: His decision to move to Milan, where he encounters Ambrose, who profoundly influences his conversion to Christianity.

Book 11: A philosophical exploration of time, discussing its nature, its relation to God’s eternity, and its significance in understanding divine creation and human existence.

The Canterbury Tales (Prologue + The Wife of Bath’s Tale)

Author: Geoffrey Chaucer

Time period: Takes place in the late fourteenth century and depicts a time of significant social upheaval, including the decline of chivalry, the emergence of the middle class, and rising criticism of the Church.

Major themes:

1. Social hierarchy+class: In the Prologue, Chaucer introduces a diverse group of pilgrims from different social classes, professions, and walks of life. Their descriptions reflect the rigid medieval social hierarchy, but also show the complexity and overlap between these classes.

   1. The inclusion of characters like the Knight, the Miller, and the Wife of Bath allows Chaucer to comment on the expectations, virtues, and hypocrisies of each class.

2. Religious corruption+piety; Chaucer critiques the Church and its representatives through figures like the Pardoner, Summoner, and Friar. Their corruption, greed, and hypocrisy contrast with the genuine faith of characters like the Parson.

   1. This theme reflects the growing disillusionment with the Church during the late medieval period.

3. Gender and Power Dynamics; The Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale is a landmark exploration of gender roles and marital power. The Wife of Bath challenges patriarchal norms, advocating for female authority in marriage and questioning traditional gender expectations.

4. Appearance vs. Reality; Many characters in the Prologue are described in ways that reveal discrepancies between their outward appearances or professions and their true natures. For example, the Monk enjoys hunting more than religious duties, and the Pardoner's pious preaching masks his greed.

5. Appearance vs. Reality; The Wife of Bath offers a candid and unconventional perspective on love and marriage, emphasizing themes of sovereignty, companionship, and negotiation.

Key characters:

1. The Knight: A noble and honorable man who has fought in many crusades. He is portrayed as the ideal of chivalry and modesty.

   1. The Knight represents the pinnacle of medieval knighthood and virtue, embodying the values of loyalty, courage, and humility.

2. The Wife of Bath: A confident and worldly woman, she is described as having been married five times and is skilled in the "art of love." She wears rich, flamboyant clothing and is well-traveled.

   1. The Wife of Bath challenges traditional gender roles, offering a bold critique of societal norms regarding women and marriage.

3. The Pardoner: A church official who sells indulgences (pardons for sins). He is described as effeminate, greedy, and hypocritical, though a talented preacher.

   1. The Pardoner is a scathing critique of religious corruption and moral decay within the Church.

4. The Summoner: An officer of the Church who summons individuals to ecclesiastical court. He is lecherous, drunk, and morally corrupt.

   1. Like the Pardoner, the Summoner represents the widespread corruption in the medieval Church.

5. The Prioress : A nun with refined manners and a love for worldly things. She is more concerned with appearances and courtly behavior than spiritual devotion.

   1. The Prioress reflects the theme of appearance versus reality and critiques the misalignment of religious priorities.

6. The Wife of Bath: A confident and worldly woman, she is described as having been married five times and is skilled in the "art of love." She wears rich, flamboyant clothing and is well-traveled.

   1. This theme reflects the growing disillusionment with the Church during the late medieval period.

7. The Miller; A brawny and bawdy man who loves telling vulgar stories. He is described as dishonest and prone to drunkenness.

   1. The Miller represents the lower class and adds a humorous, coarse element to the pilgrimage.

8. The Parson: A virtuous and devout clergyman who genuinely practices what he preaches

   1. The Parson stands in stark contrast to characters like the Pardoner and Summoner, representing true Christian values.

9. The Clerk (Cleric): A poor but studious scholar who spends his money on books rather than worldly goods.

   1. The Clerk embodies the value of education and intellectual pursuits, though he is somewhat impractical.

Basic context/information:

1. Prologue:

   The General Prologue serves as the introduction to The Canterbury Tales. It sets up the frame narrative and introduces the pilgrims, who will tell their stories.

   The story begins at the Tabard Inn in Southwark, near London. A group of 29 pilgrims, along with the narrator, gather to travel to the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket in Canterbury.

   Often considered a fictionalized version of Chaucer himself, the narrator describes the pilgrims in vivid detail, revealing their social roles, appearances, and personalities.

   The prologue is a microcosm of 14th-century English society, featuring characters from a variety of social classes and occupations, from the nobility (Knight) to common laborers (Plowman). Chaucer uses humor and satire to critique societal norms, professions, and the Church, blending realism with irony.

2. In her prologue, The Wife of Bath recounts her personal experiences with marriage, using humor and candor to critique societal expectations of women. In her tale, she explores themes of power and equality in relationships, telling the story of a knight who learns to value a woman’s sovereignty.

   1. The tale is set in the time of King Arthur. A knight commits a crime and is sentenced to death but is given a chance to save himself by answering the question: "What do women most desire?" An old woman provides the answer—sovereignty over their lives and relationships—but demands that the knight marry her in return. After reluctantly marrying the old woman, the knight learns to respect her, and she transforms into a beautiful and loyal wife. The tale promotes mutual respect and understanding in relationships, illustrating the benefits of granting autonomy and power to women. The tale reflects the Wife of Bath's own beliefs about the importance of female sovereignty and experience.

Don Quixote (Book 1)

Author: Miguel de Cervantes

Time period:

Major themes:

Key characters:

Basic context/information: