Marxist Approach

Marxist ideas originated in the 19th century with the German revolutionary communist Karl Marx (1818-83), but his ideas have influenced generations of social scientists since then. Those who have largely followed his ideas are known as Marxists, while those who have been influenced by his work but have then developed somewhat different ideas are known as neo-Marxists. Marxists see capitalist societies, such as Britain today, as dominated by a ruling class. The ruling class consists of the wealthy, who own what Marx called the means of production (the things needed to produce other things such as land, capital, machinery and labour power). The wealth of the ruling class enables them to dominate and control the non-economic parts of society - what Marxists call the superstructure.

For Marxists, education is seen as an important part of the superstructure of society. Along with other institutions (such as the mass media, family, religion and the legal system), it serves the needs of the ruling class who control the economic base. This base shapes the superstructure, while the superstructure maintains and justifies the base

For Marxists then, education performs two main functions in capitalist society:

◦            It reproduces the inequalities and social relations of production in capitalist society. For example, it generally trains pupils from working-class backgrounds to do working-class jobs while providing elite education for the children of the wealthy, preparing them to take up positions of power in society.

◦            It serves to legitimate (justify) these inequalities through the myth of meritocracy. It persuades members of society that their positions (particularly their jobs) reflect their ability, while in reality they largely reflect class background.
(See Chapter 2 for a discussion of class inequalities in achievement).

Legitimation is the process of justifying or gaining support for an idea, policy, and institution or social group. It often involves justifying an inequality or a form of exploitation, perhaps by portraying it as natural (for example, saying men are naturally stronger than women) or as fair (for example, claiming that it is always the most able who get the best-paid jobs).

The Marxist Louis Althusser (1971) disagrees with functionalists that the main function of education is the transmission of common values.

He argues that education is an ideological state apparatus (ISA). Its main function is to maintain, legitimate and reproduce, generation by generation, class inequalities in wealth and power. It does this by transmitting ruling-class or capitalist values disguised as common values. For example, in Britain and other capitalist countries, pupils are encouraged to accept the benefits of private enterprise and individual competition without question. To Marxists, these parts of the capitalist system provide much greater benefit to the ruling class than to other members of society. Along with other ISAs, such as the media and the legal system, education reproduces the conditions needed for capitalism to flourish without having to use force, which would expose it as oppressive.Instead, ideology achieves the same results by exerting its influence subconsciously.

An ideology is a set of beliefs that promotes the interests of one group (for example, one class) at the expense of others. For example, if the working class are persuaded by ideology that they only deserve very low wages, then this serves the interests of the ruling class.

Pierre Bourdieu (1977) argues that the working classes are effectively duped into accepting that their failure and limited social mobility are justified. The education system tends to value the culture of middle and upper classes much more than that of the working class (for example, classical music and 'serious' literature rather than popular culture). The cultural attributes of the working class are rejected because the system is defined by, and for, the middle classes who, in turn, succeed by default rather than greater ability.

Their cultural assets are seen as worthy of investment and reward and hence have greater value as cultural capital. A process of cultural reproduction takes place in which the culture of the middle class is reproduced and given higher status than working class culture through the education system (this is discussed in more detail in Chapter 2). Bourdieu sees this as a form of 'symbolic violence' against the working class.

Do you agree that the curriculum content in the British education system devalues the culture of the working class in particular and less powerful groups in general?

Correspondence theory

Bowles and Gintis (1976) argue that education is controlled by capitalists and serves their interests. From a study of high school children in the USA they argue that there is a close relationship between schooling and work, because schooling is used to prepare children to work in capitalist businesses. The correspondence theory states that education corresponds to employment.

Capitalism requires a hardworking, docile and obedient workforce which will not challenge the decisions of management. Bowles and Gintis believe that education prepares such a workforce through the hidden curiculum. or the hidden, informal messages and lessons that come from the way schooling is organised. It works in the

following ways:

◦            Conformist pupils are awarded higher grades than those who challenge authority or think creatively.

◦            Schools teach acceptance of hierarchy since teachers give the orders and pupils obey, just as workers obey managers in the workplace.

◦            Pupils are motivated by the external rewards of exam success just as workers are motivated by wages, since neither pupils nor workers experience satisfaction in learning or work because it is directed by others and they have little control over it.

◦            Both work and education are fragmented, or broken into small pieces, so that workers and pupils have little overall understanding of production or society.
This keeps them divided and, in the case of workers, prevents them from setting up their own businesses in competition with their employers.

Like Bourdieu, Bowles and Gintis see the idea of meritocracy as a myth - people are conned into believing that success or failure is based on merit, whereas in reality their class background determines how well they do in education.

Criticisms of the Marxist approach

Marxism in general, and Bowles and Gintis in particular, have been criticised in a number of ways. They tend to emphasise class inequality in education and pay little or no attention to inequality based on gender or ethnicity. The idea that education corresponds to work has been criticised by Brown (1997), who believes that much work now requires teamwork rather than obedience of authority. Reynolds (1984) believes some education encourages critical thinking, for example, Sociology. Some neo-Marxists such as Willis believe that the hidden curriculum is not always accepted (see 'Neo-Marxist perspectives' in this chapter). They claim that it is debatable whether education is really controlled by the ruling class. Elected local education authorities and teachers have some independence and do not have to follow the wishes of capitalists all the time. Some of the evidence used to support Marxism is dated and may not be representative. For example, Bowles and Gintis conducted their research in 1976 in the USA, and it may not be applicable in Britain in the 21st century.