Human Dev. Chapter 5

Piaget's Approach to Cognitive Development

• Core idea: knowledge is organized into mental structures called schemas (schemata).

• How change happens:

  • Assimilation: interpreting new information using existing schemas.

  • Accommodation: changing schemas in response to new information that doesn’t fit.

  • Schema growth: gradual modification and expansion of mental structures as a result of new experiences.

• Piaget’s view: knowledge development proceeds through discontinuous universal stages.

• Transition between stages:

  • Although stages are discontinuous, there is a transition period where behaviors blend aspects of current and upcoming stages.

• Key terms:

  • Mental structures = schemas or schemata.

• Overall perspective:

  • New experiences are processed in terms of current ways of thinking; over time, experiences lead to changes in thinking.

The Stages and Core Piagetian Concepts (Sensorimotor focus for this chapter)

Piaget’s four major stages:

• Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years, where infants learn through their senses and actions

• Preoperational Stage: Ages 2 to 7, characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism.

• Concrete Operational Stage: Ages 7 to 11, involving logical thinking applied to concrete situations.

• Formal Operational Stage: Ages 12 and up, marked by the ability to think abstractly and systematically.

• Moving to the next stage depends on:

  • Physical maturation

  • Relevant experiences

• Discontinuous progression, with a transition period between stages where behavior shows a mix of old and new features.

Sensorimotor Stage (birth–2 years)

• Overview: first and only stage discussed in this chapter; subdivided into 6 substages (timeline varies by child but order is fixed).

• Substages and characteristics:

  • Substage 1: Simple Reflexes (1st month)

  • Description: Reflex-driven interactions with the world.

  • Example: Sucking reflex causes infant to suck on anything placed on lips.

  • Substage 2: First Habits/Primary Circular Reactions (1–4 months)

  • Description: Coordination of actions through repetitive, self-directed activities focusing on body.

  • Example: An infant grasps something and brings it to the mouth to suck; stares at something then touches it.

  • Substage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)

  • Description: Infants shift attention away from themselves and begin to
    act on the outside world; notice response from vocalization.

  • Example: An infant repeatedly picks up a rattle and shakes it differently to see how the sound changes.

  • Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8–12 months)

  • Description: Goal-directed behavior; schemas are combined to solve problems and anticipate events.

  • Example: An infant pushes one toy out of the way to reach another toy that is partly exposed under it.

  • Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions (12–18 months)

  • Description: Deliberate variation of actions to bring about desirable consequences.

  • Example: A child drops a toy repeatedly, varying the drop position to observe where/how it falls.

  • Substage 6 Beginnings of Thought (18 months–2 years)

  • Description: Capacity for mental representation and symbolic thought; deferred imitation; pretend play.

  • Example: A child pretends to drive a car while sitting in a high chair.

  • Key takeaway: Sensorimotor stage centers on learning through action; knowledge equals action; infants learn by doing rather than being told.

In-class Activation: What Substage is Owen In?

• A series of links (photos) used to determine Owen's substage in class activities:

  • https://photos.app.goo.gl/VQbkhdVpmWAxi8mU7

  • https://photos.app.goo.gl/ZuGcaeD4enTi1SL79

  • 12:30 https://photos.app.goo.gl/S7fHBXoNy3pzYbBM6

  • https://photos.app.goo.gl/qBTLKtGVyFT3WEZU9

  • https://photos.app.goo.gl/AZJbk5mGqRDYRdMv5

  • https://photos.app.goo.gl/wsfBWYjfLN663pa26

• Substage identifications shown in class materials:

  • Owen In? (various photo prompts)

  • 12:30 prompt

  • Additional prompts: RA ZO, MOMMY ES

Assessing Piaget’s Theory

• Pros:

  • Descriptions of child cognitive development are accurate in many respects.

  • The general sequence of cognitive development is supported.

  • He correctly emphasized learning through environmental interactions.

• Cons:

  • The notion of discontinuous stages can be questioned; development may be more gradual.

  • The connection between motor development and cognitive development may be exaggerated; sensory systems were not given sufficient consideration.

  • Some skills (e.g., object permanence) can emerge earlier than Piaget proposed.

  • Non-Western cultural variations were not adequately considered.

Information Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development

• Core idea: cognitive growth is quantitative and continuous, focusing on how information is taken in, used, and stored.

• Distinguishing feature from Piaget: not stage-based; emphasizes incremental improvements in processing speed and efficiency.

• What counts as progress: faster and more sophisticated organization and manipulation of information by infancy.

The Three Basic Aspects of Information Processing

• 1. Encoding: recording information in a usable form for memory; information is selectively encoded.

• 2. Storage: placement of material in memory.

• 3. Retrieval: locating and bringing stored information into awareness and use.

• Analogy: computer model of memory — Encoding, Storage, Retrieval.

• Mathematical framing: the growth and efficiency of encoding/storage/retrieval can be considered as continuous improvements, often measured via processing speed or looking-time paradigms.

Memory in Infancy

• Memory is possible in infancy: infants can distinguish old vs. new stimuli.

• Memory capabilities increase with age.

• Debates about the age at which memories can be retrieved.

  • Early view: infantile amnesia (no memories before ~3 years).

  • Current view: earlier memories exist, but retrieval becomes reliable around 18-24 months.

• Physical memory traces may be permanent, but retrieval accuracy is influenced by:

  • Interference from new information

  • Limited language at encoding time

Memory Duration and Long-Term Memory Systems

• Long-term memory comprises two systems:

  • Explicit memory: conscious recall; can be retrieved intentionally (e.g., recalling a name or phone number).

  • Develops between 18-24 months; involves the hippocampus and cortex.

  • Implicit memory: unconscious memories that influence performance; includes motor skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike).

  • Develops first; involves the cerebellum and brain stem.

• Cognitive neuroscience and memory: explicit vs implicit distinctions and underlying neural substrates.

Memory Retrieval Examples (Explicit vs Implicit)

• When you remember your first-grade teacher’s name: explicit (conscious recall); implicit not typical.

• When you remember words from a new song: explicit.

• When you remember how to ride your bike: implicit (procedural memory).

• When you remember how to tie your shoe: explicit and implicit aspects may both be involved depending on context.

• Question prompt: You Tell Me: Explicit or Implicit.

Infant Intelligence and Its Measurement

• Defining infant intelligence is challenging; emphasis on how measures relate to later intelligence.

• Scales used to assess infant intelligence:

  • Developmental Quotient (DQ)

  • Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development

  • Visual-recognition memory measures

• Relationship to later intelligence:

  • Moderate correlation between processing speed in infancy and later intelligence.

• Methods for assessing information processing in infancy:

  • Visual-recognition memory: speed of looking away from a stimulus; faster looking-away indicates higher processing efficiency.

  • Cross-modal transference: infant’s ability to match a stimulus across senses; requires abstract thinking linked to later intelligence.

• Environmental stimulation plays a role in adult intelligence; IQ tests measure only certain kinds of intelligence and should not be used as sole predictors of life success.

Information Processing vs Piaget: Two Complementary Views

• Information Processing: quantitative, continuous growth; precise measures (e.g., processing speed).

• Piaget: qualitative, discontinuous growth; broad structural changes.

• Both approaches provide valuable insights into infancy cognition.

• Takeaway: They should be integrated for a fuller understanding of cognitive development.

The Roots of Language

• Language: system of symbols with meaning used for communication.

• Core components:

  • Phonology: basic sounds (phonemes)

  • Morphemes: smallest meaningful units (words or word parts like prefixes/suffixes)

  • Semantics: rules governing word meaning and sentence structure

• Comprehension vs production:

  • Comprehension typically precedes production.

Prelinguistic Communication

• Definition: communication through sounds, facial expressions, gestures, imitation, and other nonlinguistic means.

• Babbling: sounds like speech but without meaning; universal occurrence (even in deaf children); becomes more complex over time.

• Around 6 months, babbling sounds more like the home language.

• Prelinguistic stage follows the cooing stage.

First Words and Early Vocabulary

• First words usually spoken between 10-14 months.

• By 15 months, about 10 words are typical.

• One-word stage ends by around 18 months.

• Between 16-24 months, language rapidly expands; vocabulary often grows by 50-400 words.

• Holophrases: single words that represent an entire phrase or idea.

First Sentences and Telegraphic Speech

• First sentences typically emerge after the one-word stage.

• Telegraphic speech: leaving out nonessential words (e.g., "snack please" instead of "I would like a snack, please").

• As vocab expands, telegraphic speech becomes more complex.

Language Development Theories

• Learning Theory (Behaviorist) Approach:

  • Language acquisition occurs via reinforcement and conditioning.

  • Limitations: does not explain how children learn grammar or apply rules to nonsense words.

• Nativist Approach:

  • Noam Chomsky proposes an innate language acquisition device (LAD) and universal grammar common to all languages.

  • Emphasizes that humans are born with a predisposition to acquire language.

  • Pros: supported by evidence of gene-associated speech production and similar language processing in infant and adult brains.

  • Cons: primates can learn some language basics; genetics alone cannot account for language; social interaction and environment are critical.

• Interactionist Approach:

  • Language development results from a combination of genetic predispositions and environmental factors.

  • Acknowledges innate predisposition but emphasizes exposure and reinforcement from language environment.

• Infant-Directed Speech (IDS):

  • Also called motherese; characteristics include short, simple phrases, higher pitch, varied intonation.

  • Often mirrors prelinguistic speech sounds.

  • Begins to change around the child’s first year.

  • IDS plays a key role in language acquisition; infants prefer IDS and learn more from it.

• Gender differences in parental speech patterns:

  • Parents of girls: use more diminutives (e.g., kitty, doggie), more responsive to emotional states, more diversions in responses.

  • Parents of boys: use firmer, clearer language; as adults, men tend to be more direct while women are more tentative; this may reflect broader social communication patterns.

Fundamentals of Language and Practical Implications

• Language development is foundational for later cognitive and social development.

• Comprehension leads production; early comprehension supports later expressive ability.

• The social and cultural context shapes language acquisition as much as biological predispositions.

Notes on Terms and Concepts Summary

• Assimilation: interpreting new experiences through existing schemas.

• Accommodation: changing schemas in light of new information.

• Schemas/Schemata: mental structures that organize knowledge.

• Object Permanence: understanding that objects continue to exist even when not perceived; develops during sensorimotor stage and becomes more robust with substage progression.

• Deferred Imitation: imitation of actions after a delay; indicates internal representations.

• Symbolic Thought: use of symbols to represent objects/actions not present; foundational to language and thought.

• Holophrase: a single word representing a larger idea.

• Telegraphic Speech: omission of nonessential words in speech.

• Explicit Memory: conscious recall with effort; hippocampus involvement.

• Implicit Memory: unconscious memory influencing behavior; cerebellum involvement.

• Visual-Recognition Memory: memory assessed by recognition of a previously seen stimulus; faster recognition indicates higher cognitive processing efficiency.

• Cross-Modal Transference: ability to identify a stimulus across senses; reflects higher-order cognitive processing.

• Developmental Quotient (DQ): scale for infant development.

• Bayley Scales: standardized assessment for infant and toddler development.

• LAD (Language Acquisition Device): theoretical neural mechanism specialized for language.

• Universal Grammar: hypothesis that all languages share a common underlying structure.

• IDS (Infant-Directed Speech): simplified, high-intonation speech used with infants.

• Underextension vs Overextension: underextension restricts a word’s use; overextension broadens its use.

Quick Reference: Key Ages and Ranges (for quick study)

• Sensorimotor substage progression: 1-4 ext{ months}; 8-12 ext{ months}; 12-18 ext{ months}; 18 ext{ months}-2 ext{ years}.

• Critical memory development window: 18-24 ext{ months} for reliable explicit memory retrieval.

• First words: around 10-14 ext{ months}; ~15 ext{ months} for ~10 words; end of one-word stage ~ 18 ext{ months}.

• Language explosion window: 16-24 ext{ months}.

• Infant intelligence scales: DQ, Bayley Scales.

• Explicit memory development: from 18-24 ext{ months} onward.

References to Sources in Transcript (class prompts)

• Khan Academy review reference for Piaget material.

• “What Substage is Owen In?” prompts with multiple photo links for substage identification.

• Discussion prompts on substage timing and language development throughout the early chapters.