Earth Science Lecture Review

Latitude and Longitude

Latitude:
- Mnemonic: "LAT = FAT" (like the rungs of a ladder).
- Measures degrees either north or south of the Equator.
- The poles are located at 90^\circ latitude.
- The Equator is 0^\circ latitude and divides Earth into equal north and south halves.
- The Equator is the longest line of distance measurement because it circles the widest part of Earth.
- Example: A latitude line might be marked as 30'' ext{ N} (which should be 30^\circ \text{ N} based on typical notation for degrees of latitude).
Longitude:
- Mnemonic: "How LONG (TALL) are you?"
- Measures degrees either east or west of the Prime Meridian.
- These lines are not parallel and divide Earth into 360^\circ.
- The Prime Meridian is 0^\circ longitude and runs through Greenwich, England.
- To divide Earth into West and East hemispheres, the Prime Meridian and the International Date Line are utilized.
- Earth is divided into 180^\circ of west longitude and 180^\circ of east longitude.
Combined Use:
- Latitude provides a place's position in degrees north or south of the Equator (0^\circ latitude).
- Longitude provides a place's position in degrees east or west of the Prime Meridian (0^\circ longitude).
- By combining latitude and longitude coordinates, the position of any place on the Earth's surface can be determined.
- Example: A point located at 40^\circ \text{ N}, 30^\circ \text{ W}.

Understanding and Visualizing Earth

Methods to "See" the Whole Earth:
- Satellites: Orbit Earth continuously, taking pictures of events.
- Remote Sensing: Allows observation of features like the ocean floor.
- Maps: Visual representations of smaller areas of Earth.
  - Three common types of maps include: road maps, weather maps, and topographic (contour) maps.
Cardinal Directions and Compass:
- Cardinal Directions: North, South, East, West.
- Compass: A tool used to find cardinal directions; it points towards the Earth's magnetic North or magnetic South pole.
- Magnetic Axis Tilt: The Earth's magnetic axis is tilted by 23.5^\circ relative to its geographic (true) North pole.
- Magnetic Declination: This is the angle of correction needed to adjust from magnetic north to true north.
**Five Main Parts of a Map (Plus Additional Components):
- Title: Identifies what the map is depicting.
- Scale: Represents the ratio between measurements on the map and actual measurements in the real world (e.g., 1:24,000 or 230 \text{ miles} \text{ per } \text{ inch} shown in an example).
- Legend (or Key): Explains the symbols used on the map.
- Compass Rose: Indicates cardinal directions, allowing the user to orient the map.
- Latitude & Longitude: Provide the coordinates for locations.
- Source: Specifies where the information used to create the map came from.
- Author: The individual or entity responsible for creating the map.
- Date: The date when the map was created.
**Breaking Down Degrees for Accuracy (Cartography):
- Cartographers (map-makers) subdivide degrees of latitude and longitude for greater precision.
- One degree is equal to 60 minutes (1^\circ = 60'$').
- One minute is equal to 60 seconds (1' = 60'').
- This system allows for more accurate pinpointing of locations on a map.
- Example: A latitude coordinate might be expressed as 45^\circ 32' 14'' N.
**Map Projections:
- Projection: Describes the mathematical method used to transform the 3 ext{D} surface of a globe onto a 2 ext{D} flat map. No flat map can perfectly represent a 3 ext{D} globe without some distortion.
- Mercator Projection: Accurately represents the sizes of continents near the Equator but shows significant distortion closer to the poles.
- Conic Projection: Created by transferring a globe onto a cone and then flattening it out. This projection generally does not distort the shapes of continents.
- Robinson Projection: Features parallel latitude lines and curved longitude lines, which results in distortion of continents near the poles.
**International Date Line & Time Zones:
- The International Date Line is located along the 180^\circ line of longitude, primarily in the middle of the Pacific Ocean.
- It serves to separate two consecutive calendar days.
- The region immediately to the left (west) of the International Date Line is always one day ahead of the date (or day) immediately to its right (east).

Earth Spheres

Atmosphere:
- The gaseous layer that surrounds Earth.
- Composed of gases such as oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and others.
- Plays a crucial role in protecting Earth from radiation.
- Is the cause of phenomena like wind and storms.
Geosphere:
- Consists of Earth's solid components: rocks, mountains, beaches (excluding water bodies).
- Includes ocean basins and layers of rock.
- Comprises Earth's crust and mantle.
- Undergoes continuous changes over geological time.
Biosphere:
- Encompasses all forms of life on Earth.
- Includes humans, trees, plants, and all other living organisms.
Hydrosphere:
- Includes all water found near the Earth's surface.
- Examples: Oceans, lakes, rivers, and groundwater.
- Only about 3\% of the total hydrosphere is fresh water, primarily existing as ice and snow.
- Central to the water cycle.
Sphere Interaction: The document implies interaction between these spheres, though it does not provide specific details.

Key Vocabulary

Altitude: Height.
Apogee: The point in an orbit farthest from the body being orbited (e.g., the Earth for a satellite).
Astronomy: The scientific study of stars and celestial objects.
Asthenosphere: A region of Earth's mantle (below the lithosphere).
Barometer: An instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure.
Bathymetric: Pertaining to the measurement of water depth, often for mapping the ocean floor (from bathy- meaning deep and meter- meaning measure).
Biology: The scientific study of life.
Cycle: A repeating series of events.
Cryo-: Prefix meaning cold.
Convection: The transfer of heat through the movement of fluids (liquids or gases).
Epi-: Prefix meaning upon.
Equa- / Equi-: Prefix meaning equal.
Geo-: Prefix meaning Earth.
Helio-: Prefix meaning Sun.
Hemi-: Prefix meaning half.
Hydro-: Prefix meaning water.
Iso-: Prefix meaning equal.
Lith- / Litho-: Prefix meaning stone.
Meta-: Prefix meaning after or change.
Meter-: Prefix meaning measure.
Morph-: Prefix meaning shape or form.
Peri-: Prefix meaning near or around.
Photo-: Prefix meaning light.
Rego-: Prefix meaning blanket (often referring to regolith, the layer of loose material covering solid rock).
Seismo-: Prefix meaning earthquake.
Sub-: Prefix meaning under.
Terr- / Terra-: Prefix meaning Earth.
Thermo-: Prefix meaning heat.

The Scientific Method

The Scientific Method is a systematic approach to inquiry, often summarized by the acronym PURPOSE:

Problem / Observation / Question:
- Identifies a topic for research, an observation that has been made, or a question that needs to be answered.
- Examples:
  - "Does caffeine help students score higher on tests?"
  - "What causes lightning?"
  - "Why is seawater off the coast of California so cool?"
Research:
- Involves gathering background information about the topic.
- One can use simple questions to guide research, such as: "What is it?", "What causes it?", "What are the consequences/effects?"
- Research must be obtained from credible, peer-reviewed sources.
Hypothesis:
- A proposed explanation or prediction for an observation or problem.
- It predicts the outcome of an experiment.
- Example: "If you get at least 6 hours of sleep, you will do better on tests than if you get less sleep."
Experiment:
- A procedure meticulously carried out to either support or refute the hypothesis.
- Involves collecting data, which can be quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (descriptive).
- Must be repeatable by others to ensure validity.
- Requires the identification of variables (dependent and independent).
- Involves identifying a control group and constants.
Analysis:
- The phase where the results of the experiment are recorded and examined.
- Involves looking at both qualitative and quantitative data.
- The goal is to identify trends, outliers, or patterns within the data.
- The data analyzed provides the evidence necessary for reasoning.
Conclusion:
- Reports the results of the experiment.
- Compares the hypothesis with the experimental outcomes.
- Draws inferences based on the results.
- Considers whether more testing is required.

Experimental Design Definitions

Constant: An element or condition in an experiment that remains unchanged throughout all trials.
Variables: Elements or conditions in an experiment that can change.
Independent Variable: The factor that I (the experimenter) intentionally test or change; it is considered the cause in a cause-and-effect relationship.
Dependent Variable: The factor that is observed, measured, or affected by the change in the independent variable; it is the effect in a cause-and-effect relationship.
Control (Group): The part of the experiment that is not subjected to the independent variable; it serves as a baseline for comparison.

CER (Claim, Evidence, Reasoning)

CER is a framework for scientific argumentation:

Research Question Example: "Does knuckle cracking lead to arthritis?"
Claim: A single sentence that directly answers the research question.
Evidence: Provides specific data, observations, or results from an experiment to support the claim.
Reasoning: Uses scientific rules or principles to explain why the evidence supports the claim, establishing the logical connection.

Metric Mania: Conversion Practice

**Metric System Ladder (Prefixes and Values):
- Kilo (1000 units)
- Hecto (100 units)
- Deka (10 units)
- Basic Unit (1 unit) - e.g., meter, gram, liter
- Deci (0.1 units)
- Centi (0.01 units)
- Milli (0.001 units)
**Conversion Rules:
- To convert to a smaller unit: Move the decimal point to the right or multiply by a power of 10.
- To convert to a larger unit: Move the decimal point to the left or divide by a power of 10.
**Examples of Conversions and Comparisons (as shown in the transcript's exercises):
- 1000 \text{ mg} = 1 \text{ g}
- 1 \text{ L} = 1000 \text{ ml}
- 160 \text{ cm} = 1600 \text{ mm}
- 14 \text{ km} = 14000 \text{ m}
- 10.9 \text{ g} = 0.0109 \text{ kg}
- 250 \text{ m} = 0.25 \text{ km} (Note: A handwritten answer of 0.6km is shown for this problem in the transcript, but the correct conversion is 0.25 \text{ km})
- Comparing quantities:
  - 56 \text{ cm} < 6 \text{ m} (since 6 \text{ m} = 600 \text{ cm})
  - 7 \text{ g} > 698 \text{ mg} (since 7 \text{ g} = 7000 \text{ mg})
  - 2500 \text{ m} = 2.5 \text{ km}
  - 8 \text{ mm} = 0.8 \text{ cm}
  - 75 \text{ ml} = 0.075 \text{ L}
  - 850 \text{ cm} = 8.5 \text{ m}
  - 56 \text{ m} = 5600 \text{ cm}
  - 65 \text{ g} = 0.065 \text{ kg}
  - 6.3 \text{ cm} = 63 \text{ mm}
  - 120 \text{ mg} = 0.12 \text{ g}
  - 63 \text{ cm} < 6 \text{ m}
  - 50 \text{ g} > 508 \text{ mg}
  - 1500 \text{ ml} = 1.5 \text{ L}
  - 536 \text{ cm} = 53.6 \text{ dm}
  - 43 \text{ mg} < 5 \text{ g}
  - 3.6 \text{ m} > 36 \text{ cm}$$