In-Depth Notes on Bullying, Family Dynamics, and Impact of COVID-19

Family Life and Functions

• Key Family Functions (Berger, 2014):

  1. Providing food, clothing, and shelter.

  2. Encouraging academic and personal learning.

  3. Developing self-esteem in children.

  4. Nurturing peer friendships.

  5. Providing stability and harmony.

• Home Environment:

  • A healthy family environment meets physical, cognitive, emotional, and social needs.

  • Disparities in attention to these needs can affect children negatively.

Parenting Styles

• Influence of Parenting Styles:

  • Children in middle to late childhood become more peer-oriented:

  • Important for parents to modify their approach to foster independence.

  • Authoritative parenting:

  • Mixture of reasoning and joint decision-making is most beneficial (Berk, 2007).

  • Authoritarian parenting:

  • More common in some cultural groups (e.g., Asian-American), focusing on strict discipline but still includes warmth (Chao, 2001).

Changing Family Structures

• Living Arrangements Over Time:

  • Significant change from 1960 to 2017:

  • 1960: 92% of children lived with married parents.

  • 2017: Only 65% lived with married parents; increasing rates of children in single-parent or cohabitating households.

  • Concerns about economic implications for children in single-parent households:

  • Higher poverty rates among solo or cohabiting parents.

Lesbian and Gay Parenting

• Research Findings:

  • Children of lesbian and gay parents fare as well as those from heterosexual parents in various developmental metrics.

  • No evidence supports negative impacts due to parental sexual orientation on child adjustment and development.

Impact of Divorce on Children

1. Behavioral and Emotional Effects

• Children from divorced families show more behavior problems, persisting into adolescence (Weaver & Schofield, 2015).

• Externalizing behaviors are worse in families with fewer financial resources before divorce.

• Post-divorce homes may be less supportive, and custodial mothers often experience more stress and depression.

2. Financial and Social Impact

• Custodial mothers see a 25-50% drop in income; even five years post-divorce, earnings remain lower (Anderson, 2018).

• Reduced spending on toys, activities, dining out, and healthcare affects children’s experiences.

• Divorce often brings housing, school, and social changes, causing further adjustment stress.

3. Long-Term Effects

• 25% of adults from divorced families experience social, emotional, or psychological issues, vs. 10% from intact families.

• Greater difficulty in relationships and higher divorce rates.

• Lower education and occupational status often stem from financial hardship, not divorce itself (Richter & Lemola, 2017).

4. Protective Factors

• Children adjust better when parents limit conflict, provide warmth, and maintain discipline.

• Higher IQ, problem-solving skills, and social support help mitigate negative effects.

• Close parent-child bonds often strengthen post-divorce, especially in single-mother families (McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994).

• The custodial parent's adjustment is key to a child's well-being.

5. Summary

• Divorce impacts children’s behavior and financial stability, but negative outcomes are not inevitable.

• Protective factors like strong parenting, emotional support, and financial stability help children adapt.

• Most children of divorce lead happy, well-adjusted lives.

Blended Families

• Statistics:

  • One in six children live in blended families today (Pew Research Center, 2015).

• Challenges:

  • Different household rules, feelings of insecurity, expectations of affection from stepparents can create difficulties.

  • Hostility or withdrawal from stepchildren may arise if relationships aren’t nurtured.

COVID-19 Impact

• Parental Loss:

  • A significant number of children experienced parental loss due to COVID-19.

  • Disproportionate impact on Black children and associated negative outcomes, including traumatic grief and educational challenges.

• Education and Support Needs:

  • Shift to remote learning revealed a deeper digital divide affecting low-income families.

  • Schools played a critical role in providing not just education but also food security for many children, especially during the pandemic.