Comparative Politics Test 2: Russia

Historical Background

• Communist Party System (Before 1991):

  • Russia had a one-party system led by the Communist Party.

  • Two key institutions:

    • Party Congress: Led by the General Secretary and Politburo, it set the agenda for the entire government.

    • Supreme Soviet: People’s representation (members were all from the Communist Party), responsible for electing the president and council of ministers.

  • Based on “Democratic Centralism”: Communist Party held centralized power while pretending to allow democratic discussions.

Gorbachev’s Reforms (1985-1991):

• Gorbachev created the Congress of People’s Deputies (CPD), challenging the Communist Party’s control.

• The presidency became a directly elected position for the first time, leading to Boris Yeltsin’s election as Russia’s first president after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Electoral System (Post-1991)

1. Presidential Elections:

   • Frequency: Every 6 years (since 2012; earlier every 4 years).

   • Voting Process: A candidate must win 50%+ of the vote. If no candidate wins, a second round of voting occurs.

   • Historical Presidents:

     • Boris Yeltsin (1991-1999)

     • Vladimir Putin (2000-present, with Medvedev as placeholder from 2008-2012)

     • Dmitry Medvedev (2008-2012)

2. Duma Elections (Lower House):

   • Frequency: Every 5 years.

   • Election System:

     • Mixed System: Half of the 450 seats elected by Single-Member District Plurality (SMDP) and half by Proportional Representation (PR).

     • Threshold: A party must gain at least 5% of the vote to win any PR seats.

3. Federation Council (Upper House):

   • Non-elected body: Representatives are appointed by regional officials.

Political Parties

1. United Russia (UR):

   • Formed in 2001 to support Vladimir Putin.

   • Dominates the Duma and the Federation Council.

   • Ideology: Vague, supports stability, economic growth, traditional values (anti-LGBTQ), and Russian nationalism.

   • Has faced accusations of election manipulation, media control, and suppression of opposition.

2. Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF):

   • Emerged from the former Soviet Communist Party.

   • Initially strong in the 1990s due to voter discontent with Yeltsin’s reforms.

   • Current Ideology: Anti-capitalist, pro-state economy, calls for a return to Stalinist values.

   • Continues to be the second-largest party but now polls at less than 12%.

3. A Just Russia—For Truth (AJR):

   • Formed in 2006 from a merger of left-leaning parties.

   • Identifies as social-democratic, focusing on justice and reducing inequality.

   • No longer challenges the Kremlin, becoming a nominal opposition.

4. Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR):

   • Founded by Vladimir Zhirinovsky (died in 2022), known for its nationalist, xenophobic, and anti-Western positions.

   • Advocates for the reconstitution of the Soviet Union.

   • Regularly wins around 10% of the vote.

2021 Duma Election

• United Russia won 72% of the seats, securing a supermajority.

• Turnout: Just over 50%.

• Allegations of ballot-stuffing, intimidation, and media control.

• Opposition:

  • Independent outlets were declared "foreign agents."

  • Navalny’s “Smart Voting” tactic was blocked by banning the app from platforms like Google and Apple.

  • Alexei Navalny (Putin critic) was poisoned, imprisoned, and eventually died in 2024.

2024 Presidential Election

• Putin was re-elected with 88% of the vote.

• Opposition was severely limited:

  • Navalny was prevented from running (due to imprisonment).

  • Other key opposition figures disqualified.

• International observers, including Germany and the US, criticized the election as neither free nor fair.

• Putin’s Strategy: Ensure a high voter turnout and overwhelming support, often relying on intimidation of state employees to vote.