Three Kingdoms to the Tang

The fall of the Han Dynasty to Tang. Focuses on the political division in China before the imperial reunification under the Sui Dynasty and the spread of Buddhism that occurred during this period.

2.1 The Post-Han Era: Political Division in China and Spread of Buddhism

• Collapse of the Han Dynasty caused a split in China and lead to the Three Kingdoms and Six Dynasties era.

  • China’s inventiveness did not end much like the Warring States period.

  • Continuous reforms in technology kept China as the architecutral and artistic leader of the ancient world.

  • Invention of gunpowder and the spread of Buddhism throughout China.

The Fall of the Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms Period

• The decline of the Han dynasty was due to the gradual loss of central authority and increased autonomy in the empire’s constituent states.

  • The rebellion of the Daoist religious cult was what prompt the final disintegration.

  • The inability of the central government forced the Han to rely on other means like warlords, generals, or local officials to deal with threats.

  • Rise of private armies who turned on each other after they supressed the original rebellions.

  • Warlords wanted the position of power behind the throne.

• Cao Cao, leading figure in controlling northern China and the old Eastern Han capital at Luoyang.

  • Kingdom — Wei.

  • Liu Bei, distanct relative, declared himself heir to the dynasty and founded the kingdom of Shu Han in modern-day Sichuan.

• Sun Quan did not have a link to the dynasty or possession of key territory

  • Found his own kingdom of Wu in the lower Yangtze River valley and southern China

Focus: Regions of China

• Monolithic entity with a single cultural identity that spans the area from:

  • Hong Kong in the south

  • Shanghai in the east

  • Beijing in the north

  • Xi’an in the west

• Cultures and civilizations distinct from what we know as China exists beyond political borders.

• Prior to the Three Kingdoms period, Chinese mainly concentrated around the Yellow River.

  • Civilizations influenced areas as far south as Vietnam and states that bordered the Yangtze River

    • the areas are now regarded as south and southeast China remained unoccupied by China

  • Fighting spilled over into the unoccupied areas and became strongholds for two of three powers fighting for control during the Three Kingdoms period.

• Successive dynasties that would become core regions of the Chinese empire included:

  • Sichuan

  • Zhejiang

  • Guangdong

The Jin Dynasty and Transition

• War between the Three Kingdoms went on for half a century.

• Cao’s successors founded Wei dynasty, abandoning the Han dynasty.

  • Sima Yan (Wei general), deposed the Wei emperor and founded the Jin dynasty.

    • completed the unification of China by defeating the other two kingdoms.

• The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, a popular novel in the Ming dynasty about the Three Kingdoms focused on the following:

  • Lui and his retainers

  • Cao Cao — at the expense of the other major players such as Sima and Sun

  • Novel paints Liu as the tragic hero and Cao as the conniving villian.

    • This is a contrast to the historical record that recognizes Cao and his line having gained the mandate of Heaven.

• To the Sima Clan dismise, the Jin dynasty fell.

  • Civil war in China took a toll on the Norther frontier defenses and the introduction of the steppe tribes

• The Three Kingdoms period transitioned into the Sixteen Kingdoms era, then the Southern and Northern dynasties.

  • These eras were of great turmoil and political instability

Periods of Diunity: The Sixteen Kingdoms and Southern and Northern Dynasties

• Both the Sixteen Kingdoms & Southern/Northern dynasties can be considered as the Dark Ages in Europe.

  • due to lack of a single political entity

  • the reign of foreign governments that led observers to deem it as a lost or unproductive period.

• Introduction of the steppe nomads in Chinese political scene was not through invasion but voluntary resettlement

  • as well as integreation into various militaries of the Western Chinese regions.

• While following the Roman Empire, the later Han Dynasty welcomed the Xiongnu into their lands as mercenaries or subjects.

  • This solved one problem but introduced many others — like controlling the new population groups

• After constant turnover in the Sixteen Kingdoms period, the Northern and Southern dynasties began.

  • Suggested greater stability and the possibility of reunification.

  • Neither dynasty lasted as they were too overcome by division and conflict

• Northern Wei became the dominant state in 386 CE.

  • created by the Tuoba clan of the Xianbei — Xiongnu confederation in northwest China

    • tried to keep ruling the Chinese and benefiting off the riches of agrarian life

    • eventually moved their capital to Luoyang, the captial of the Eastern Han, Wei, and Jin dynasties

    • internal revolts brought down the dynasty in 534 CE

  • Succesive dynasties would claim the throne, splitting Northern Wei and diluting power over time.

• Liu Song dynasty in the south held little control over the lower Yellow and Yangtze River regions.

  • lasted only a little over 50 years (420 - 479 CE) before it was overcome by revolt and internal instability.

• Neither Northern or Southern dynasties was considered a legitimate regime that could claim rule over all of China.

Focus: Sinification

• The difference between nomadic and settled civilizations was the potrayal of what Chinese saw as barbaric or not.

  • The relationship between the two could be symbiotic or parasitic.

• Nomadic people were highly self-sufficient.

  • Able to gain access to technology and luxury goods of agrarian societies through trade (symbiotic) or raids (parasitic)

  • due to the breakdown of control and order of the agrarian society, the nomads could seek a third option which was conquest.

• Nomads had advantages in mobility and military prowess due to their hunting skills and tribal warefare experience

• Sinificaition ( assimilation process ) — an irresistible force that almost every nomadic conqueror was aware of but was largely powerless to resist.

  • by the end of their reigns, all foreign-rule dynasties in China would become virtually indistinguishable from their subjects.

Chinese Life and Society

• Religion

  • Buddhism was introduced through the Silk Road during the Han dynasty

    • surged through the Sixteen Kingdom and Northern / Southern dynasties

  • Kumarajiva was a Buddhist monk that was captured during a Chinese military campaign but was later accepted as a member of the court.

    • contributed translations that allowed Buddhism to exist as an independent concept

  • Buddhism was inspired by great devotional art works.

  • The Mango Caves near Dunhuang ( city on the Silk Road ) was created in the 300s by Buddhist Monks.

    • Northern dynasties built upon the initial caves to create an complex that has survived centuries

      • considered a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Orginization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site.

    • Northern Wei created similar caves outside the Western capital at Datong and its eastern captial Luoyang.

      • aka. the Yungang and Longmen Caves

• Society

  • Political and ethnic divisions of the post-Three Kingdoms era created different social structures from north to south.

    • North, ethnic and cultural problems created by the steppe nomads and the Chinese.

      • although less apparent as assimilation that occured, still remained obstacles for social stability.

    • South, Chinese began to penetrate depper into the South China hinterland and came into contact with southeast Asia.

      • always at a disadvantage with the north due to its lack of military

      • developed an revolving around its extensive riverine system, agricultural wealth, and lucrative trade networks.

        • would cause the political and economic center of China to shift away from the Silk Road

2.2 China’s Golden Age: The Cosmopolitan Empires of the Sui and Tang

Golden age of China occurred around 600 to 1600 CE. Several dynasties arose and there were tremedous amount of commerical and urban development. Innovations such as paper money, the compass, woodblocks and ink for printing, and tea cultivation contributed to China’s grandeur.

Sui Dynasty

• After the collapse of the Han dynasty, Chinese culture prospered.

  • they also wanted to return to the glory and stability of the Han.

• Sui Dynasty is noted for the reestablishment of government control over fractured land, construction projects ( Grand Canal ), and the restoration of Chang’an ( now Xi’an ) as the imperial city.

• due to the expense of the projects and war with Korea, the Sui dynasty was forced to overtax and overwork the citizens

  • downfall — 618 CE

• Many see Sui as a reflection of the Qin dynasty.

  • model of strength and unity at the price of longevity.

• Sui collasped at the hands of one of its own generals, Li Yuan — est. China’s golden age, the Tang dynasty.

Tang Dynasty

• Li Yuan — the Gaozu emperor ( 618 - 626 CE ), built the Tang dynasty on the foundations of the Sui

  • succeeded by his song Li Shimin — resigned until 649 CE.

• Imperial city of Chang’an became the largest in the world.

  • served as a model for other East Asian capitals in Japan and Korea

• Gaozu’s military created a Chinese empire larger than any that had come before it.

  • size of the empire encouraged two-way trade and cultural contact between China and the kingdoms surrounding it which included:

    • India — most important export to the Tang was Mahayana Buddhism.

    • Buddhism reached its height during the Tang.

• Much like Buddhism, Literature also reached its height.

  • Li Bo aka Li Bai — most celebrated Tang Poets ( 701 - 762 BCE )

    • captured human feelings and emotions in subtle ways

Poem by Li Bo

• Xuanzang ( 602 - 664 CE ) famous monk who set out across the Silk Road to visit India.

  • studied Buddhism and mastered Sanskrit and Pali

  • stayed 17 years, brought back to China over 600 sutras, and spent 12 years translating them into Chinese

• Big Wild Goose Pagoda was built at the starting and ending points of his journey.

  • built in 652 CE and stands as a monument to the man and his faith.

Focus : Buddhism

• One of the world’s oldest religions

• founded by the Siddhartha Gautama in the sixth century BCE

• teaches insight, self-study, and rejection of pleasures associated with the carnal existence of humanity

• grew significantly and became one of the main three religions in China

• Basic Buddhist doctrine contained in Four Noble Truths:

  • all life is suffering

  • attachment causes suffering

  • to end suffering, end attachment, and thus reach nirvana; and

  • follow the eight-fold path of correct thought, speech, action, living, understanding, effort, mindfulness, and concentration

• Buddhism three main schools are

  • Theravada — “teachings of the elders”

    • most conserative of the schools

    • promotes Buddha’s original teaching and methods

    • believe that only personal experience and practice leads to enlightment; faith in any god, saint or supernatural being is misplaced.

    • Found mostly in Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Thailand, and Cambodia

  • Mahayana — “greater vehicle”

    • expands the teachings of the original Buddha to encompass a variety of ideas and beliefs

    • emphasizes the belief that anyone can be a Buddha and promote faith in a host of deities and Bodhisattvas (gods) to which humans can appeal in times of needs

    • Found mostly in China, Korea, and Japan

  • Vajrayana — “vehicle of the diamond ( or thunderbolt")”

    • Tantric Buddhism — offshoot of Mahayana Buddhism

    • emphasizes elements of magic and claims that following the path laid out in the Tantric scripts leads to an accelerated attainment of enlightment.

    • practices include the use of mantras, ritual objects, and yoga

    • onces popular around Southeast Asia and India

    • Found mostly in Tibet, Bhutan, and certain parts of Japan

Other Religions

• Daoism also flourished during the Tang dynasty.

  • temples were built to peform Daoist rites and rituals

• Islam and Christianity were also introduced and made welcome during the Tang dynasty

• Tang dynasty reinstituted the Imperial Civil Service Exam system and expanded it more than any previous dynasty.

  • took power out of the hands of warlords and aristocrats and allowed anyone a chance of becoming an imperial official.

  • so successful it lasted under every succeeding dynasty until 1911

• Tang dynasty was briefly interrupted by two political storms

  • Zhou Dynasty — short-lived and controversial

  • An Lushan Rebellion

Zhou Dynasty

• Zhou dynasty (690 - 705 CE) was one of the most interesting periods in the Tang dynastic history

  • Gaozong ( third Tang emperor ) began to suffer strokes

    • opened the door for intrigue amongst his court officials and favorites

    • Wu Zetian ( 625 - 705 CE ), Gaozong’s favorite concubine

      • outlasted two emperors

      • took the throne from her sons after the death of Gaozong

      • declared herself emperor in 690 CE, becoming the first and only woman to ever have the title

• Wu Zetian’s ruling outrages the Confucians as it was “as unnatural as a crowing hen”

  • managed to crush attempted coups in her 80s

  • forced to step down in 705 CE under the pressure from her court

  • Tang was restored in name and bloodline and Wu died nine months later

An Lushan Rebellion

• An Lushan Rebellion ( 755 - 763 CE ) — named after its leader, An Lushan

  • mixed heritage, Turk living on the far western frontier of Tang China

  • distinguished himseld in the Tang army, fighting tribes on the border in various wars

  • became senior military officer and then governor of several provinces

  • felt there was corruption in the imperial court at Chang’an

  • was disgusted by the defeat of the Tang army at the Battle of Talas River (751 CE)

• Believed he was a worthy canadiate for emperor

  • marched his army of 150,000 into the Yellow River valley and took over several major cities

  • rebellion spanned the reign of three emperors and embroiled most of Tang territory in warfare for almost a decade

• Shi Chaoyi, An’s son, murdered his father and took over the rebellion

  • defeated two years later

• Tang reemerged but was weakened

  • believed over 30 million people died due to warfare, disease, and famine during the An Lushan Rebellion

  • tax reforms failed, governmental proclamations fell through, and the empire slowly disintergrated

  • regional governers became to act as kings of their own states

  • similar state as the one that existed during the warring states or eastern han periods

• Zhu Quanzhong, a military governor, deposed of the Tang and established himself ruler in 907, ending over 300 years of Tang ruling

  • ushered in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period of Chinese history.