PHYSICAL n STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY_FINAL
Page 1: Course Introduction
Course Title: Physical and Structural Geology (MN/MR 161)
Institution: University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa
Lecturer: Ing. Dr. M.L.Y Ankah
Date: 26 January 2025
Page 2: Course Overview
Objectives:
Introduce geology fundamentals including major rock types.
Explore physical structures shaping Earth’s surface and their origins.
Understand geological processes and evolution.
Page 3: Course Logistics
Contact Hours: 3 hours/week
Evaluation:
Attendance: 10%
In-class Activities (IAs): 30% (Assignments & Quizzes)
Final Examination: 60%
Page 4: Course Outline
General Geology
Internal Processes
Geologic Time
Plate Tectonics
Weathering and Soils
Mass Wasting
Groundwater
Streams and Drainage
Wind Action and Deserts
Volcanism
Overview of Geological Structures
Page 6: Introduction to Geology
Derived from Greek: geo (Earth) + logos (discourse).
Definition: Study of Earth's materials, physical and chemical changes, and planetary history, including life forms.
Page 7: Earth's Composition
Radius: Approximately 6370 km, primarily composed of rocks.
Rock outcrops create diverse terrains like cliffs and arches.
Rocks consist of minerals; over 3500 known minerals exist, but only a few are common.
Page 8: Reasons to Study the Earth
To satisfy human curiosity and link to our environment.
To understand energy & mineral resources, geological hazards, and environmental impacts.
Page 9: Natural Resources and Environmental Impact
Manufactured Objects: Depend on Earth’s resources.
If it cannot be grown, it must be mined (non-renewable resource consideration).
Page 10: Resource Extraction Impacts
Coal Mining: Careless methods may poison groundwater.
Petroleum: Extraction processes can harm the environment.
Page 11: Geologic Hazards
Earthquakes: Can damage infrastructure.
Volcanoes: Ashflows can devastate populated areas.
Landslides and Floods: Can lead to catastrophic events.
Page 13: Branches of Geology
Physical Geology: Studies Earth's materials and processes.
Includes mineralogy, petrology, geomorphology, etc.
Historical Geology: Examines Earth's history via rock analysis, including paleontology and stratigraphy.
Page 14: Historical Perspective on Earth's Age
Archbishop Usher's Calculation: Earth created in 4004 BC (circa 6000 years old).
James Hutton (Father of Geology) challenged this idea via observations of Earth processes.
Page 15: Principle of Uniformitarianism
Concept: Present-day processes shaped the Earth in the past ("the present is the key to the past").
Page 16: Principle of Catastrophism
States Earth's history is shaped by sudden events rather than gradual processes.
Page 17: Age Determination Advances
Advances in radiometric dating revealed the Earth is approximately 4.54 billion years old.
Page 19: Understanding the Universe
The universe encompasses all space, matter, energy, and time including Earth and other celestial bodies.
Page 20: Big Bang Theory
The universe began as a hot, dense singularity around 13.6 billion years ago, leading to the formation of light elements.
Page 22: Nebular Hypothesis
Suggests solar systems formed from a large rotating cloud of gas and dust (nebula) approximately 5 billion years ago.
Page 24: Formation of the Earth
Earth formed through gravitational accretion from a nebula, eventually leading to the development of the Moon and oceans.
Page 28: Earth's Spheres
Atmosphere: Gases enveloping Earth.
Hydrosphere: All water on Earth’s surface.
Biosphere: Regions inhabiting life.
Geosphere: The solid rocky Earth.
Page 32: The Geosphere
Extends about 6400 km, consists of solid, semi-solid, and liquid layers, characterized by physical and chemical diversity.
Page 33: The Earth System
Components interrelate; powered by solar energy and Earth’s internal heat (radioactive decay).
Page 34: Geological Processes
Processes can be slow (e.g., erosion) or fast (e.g., landslides).
Page 37: The Rock Cycle
Rocks classified into three categories based on their formation:
Igneous: Formed from solidified magma.
Sedimentary: Formed from deposited sediments.
Metamorphic: Formed from alteration of existing rocks due to heat and pressure.
Page 41: Metamorphic Rock Formation
Formed when existing rocks undergo changes due to increased heat, pressure, or deformation.
Page 49: Internal Processes
Compositional Layers:
Crust: Thin layer above Mantle.
Mantle: Thick solid layer.
Core: Iron-nickel solid center and molten outer layer.
Page 60: Internal Processes Dynamics
Originating mechanisms: radioactive decay and thermal processes.
Page 61: Sources of Geological Processes Heat
Earth's internal heat due to extra-terrestrial impacts, gravitational contraction, and radioactive decay.
Page 73: Geologic Time
Dating Techniques: Absolute (via radioactive decay) and relative (through stratigraphy and rock layering).
Page 75: Principles of Relative Dating
Principle of Original Horizontality: Sediments are deposited horizontally.
Page 76: Principle of Lateral Continuity
Layers extend laterally over a distance; can be affected by geological events.
Page 90: Difference between Fault Types
Normal Fault: Hanging wall moves down.
Reverse Fault: Hanging wall moves up.
Page 115: Geological Time Scale
Eons, eras, and periods defined by life forms and geological events.
Page 126: Plate Tectonics Overview
Lithosphere divided into tectonic plates; movements cause geological activity such as earthquakes and volcanism.
Page 140: Evidence Supporting Plate Tectonics
Coastline shapes, faunal similarities, geological formations, and past climatic conditions indicate continental drift and tectonic plate movements.
Page 151: Types of Weathering
Mechanical: Physical breakdown of rocks.
Chemical: Changes in rock composition through chemical reactions.
Page 161: What are Soils?
Composed of minerals mixed with organic matter; vary in texture, consistency, and structure.
Page 173: Importance of Water in Mass Wasting
Influences slope stability, can decrease friction or enhance soil cohesion.
Page 178: Groundwater Movement
Groundwater moves through soil; influenced by porosity and permeability of materials.
Page 201: Importance of Streams
Conduits for water cycling, sediment transport, and habitats for aquatic life.
Page 220: Wind Actions in Deserts
Wind modifies landscape through erosion and sediment transport, affecting soil and mineral stability.
Page 232: Types of Volcanic Rocks
Two main types: Volcanic (extrusive) and Plutonic (intrusive); characterized by distinct formation processes.
Page 257: Overview of Geologic Structures
Types: Primary structures form during rock formation, secondary structures develop post-formation.
Page 282: Overview of Glaciers
Represent Earth's largest fresh water reservoir; sensitive to climatic changes.