STUDY WPU PART 2

The Cold War was largely shaped by nuclear deterrence, preventing direct conflict between the U.S. and the Soviet Union but leading to proxy wars in Korea, Vietnam, and other regions. Germany was divided into East and West, with the Berlin Wall built to stop migration to the prosperous West. NATO was formed by Western nations to counter Soviet influence, prompting the creation of the Warsaw Pact among communist states.

Other alliances, such as SEATO and CENTO, aimed to limit communism’s spread. The Cuban Missile Crisis brought the world close to nuclear war, but diplomacy led to a peaceful resolution and the establishment of a direct communication line between U.S. and Soviet leaders. The Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty sought to limit nuclear testing, while movements against nuclear weapons gained traction globally.

Countries like Angola and Nicaragua saw Cold War-era conflicts fueled by superpower involvement. The era was marked by ideological battles, military alliances, and global tensions that lasted for decades.

The Cold War set the stage for communist movements worldwide, especially in nations grappling with feudal and colonial legacies. Land reform became a key issue in many countries, shaping economic and political shifts.

Communism in China:

• The Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with a Communist victory, led by Mao Zedong.

• The Great Leap Forward (1958) sought collectivized agriculture but led to famine, causing millions of deaths.

• The Cultural Revolution (1966) targeted political enemies and reinforced Mao’s authority using the Red Guards.

• Despite both being communist states, China and the Soviet Union remained rivals, competing for global influence.

Iran’s Political Turmoil:

• Iran fell under foreign control due to oil interests, with Britain and Russia dominating.

• In 1953, the U.S. and Britain overthrew Prime Minister Mosaddegh, reinstating the shah, who ruled with authoritarian methods.

• The White Revolution introduced land reforms and expanded women’s rights, but failed to satisfy many Iranians.

• The Iranian Revolution (1979) led to the establishment of an Islamic theocracy, rejecting Western influence.

Latin America’s Land Reforms:

• Governments redistributed land to reduce wealth inequality, but reforms were controversial.

• Guatemala (1954) – The U.S. backed a coup against President Jacobo Árbenz, fearing communist influence.

• Venezuela (2001) – A land redistribution law angered large landowners but helped many landless farmers.

Communism in Asia & Africa:

• Vietnam – Land redistribution boosted communist support but was met with violence.

• Ethiopia – Haile Selassie aligned with Western powers but was overthrown in 1974, leading to a Marxist dictatorship under Mengistu Haile Mariam.

• India – Land reforms varied by region, with Kerala making significant progress.

The 20th century saw nationalist movements pushing for independence through negotiation and armed struggle. The Cold War influenced decolonization, as Western and communist nations competed for influence in newly independent states.

India and Pakistan: Division and Independence

• Indian National Congress and Muslim League led the fight against British rule.

• In 1947, India gained independence, but Muslim-majority regions formed Pakistan due to fears of Hindu dominance.

• Religious tensions led to conflicts over Kashmir, a disputed territory.

Decolonization in Ghana and Algeria

• Ghana (formerly Gold Coast) became the first sub-Saharan African country to gain independence in 1957 under Kwame Nkrumah, who promoted Pan-Africanism and national unity.

• Algeria’s War for Independence (1954-1962) was far more violent, as the National Liberation Front (FLN) used guerrilla warfare against French forces. Independence in 1962 led to internal conflicts and an Algerian Civil War (1991-2002) over political control.

French West Africa: Negotiated Independence

• Countries like Senegal, Ivory Coast, and Niger gained independence through peaceful negotiations with France.

• France had invested heavily in infrastructure and agriculture, leading to economic debates post-independence.

Vietnam: Colonial Rule to Communist Victory

• Ho Chi Minh led a war against France, resulting in Vietnam’s division into communist North and U.S.-backed South.

• The Vietnam War (1955-1975) saw the U.S. intervene to prevent communist expansion. The North won in 1975, establishing a unified communist government.

Egypt and the Suez Crisis

• Gamal Abdel Nasser, Egypt’s leader, promoted Pan-Arabism and nationalized industries, including the Suez Canal in 1956.

• Britain, France, and Israel invaded Egypt, but the U.S. and Soviet Union pushed for a peaceful resolution, leading to Egypt’s control of the canal.

Nigeria: Independence and Civil War

• Nigeria gained independence in 1960, but ethnic tensions led to the Biafran Civil War (1967-1970), in which the Igbo people attempted to secede.

• Post-war Nigeria saw military coups and efforts to balance ethnic divisions, including a dual legal system combining secular law and Islamic law.

Quebec’s “Silent Revolution”

• Quebec, rooted in French culture, experienced nationalist movements, including violent protests.

• Efforts for independence persisted, but referendums failed, keeping Quebec as part of Canada.